



I 

I 



6% '3 



CHRONOS 

A HANDBOOK OF COMPARATIVE 
CHRONOLOGY 



<3I 



LONDON: G. BELL AND SONS, LTD, 
PORTUGAL STREET, KINGSWAY, W.C. 
CAMBRIDGE : DEIGHTON, BELL & CO. 
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN CO. 
BOMBAY: A. H. WHEELER & CO. 



CHRONOS 

A HANDBOOK OF COMPARATIVE 
CHRONOLOGY 

CHRONOLOGICAL NOTES IN HISTORY, ART 

AND LITERATURE FROM 8000 B.C. 

TO 1700 A.D. 

FOR THE USE OF TRAVELLERS 



BY 

R.^J. HART 



Footprints on the sands of time. " 



LONDON 

G. BELL AND SONS, LTD. 

1912 



>*, 



.^ 



4 & frity-? 



CHISWICK PRESS : CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. 
TOOKS COURT, CHANCS.KY LANE, LONDON. 



CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction . xi 



\ 



PART I 



CHAP. 

I. Some Notes of the Prehistoric Period and Approxi- 
mate Dating i 

Egypt. — Cyprus. — Babylon. — Cret e. — China. 

II. Fifth Millennium b.c 3 

Egypt. — Crete. — Babylon. 

III. Fourth Millennium b.c. ..... .5 

Egypt. — Crete. — Babylonia. 

IV. Third Millennium b.c 7 

Egypt. — Crete. — Babylonia. — Hebrews. — Aegean (Greece). — Phoe- 
nicia. — China. ^. — - — 

V. Second Millennium b.c 12 

Egypt. — Cyprus. — Crete. — Babylonia. — Assyria. — Phoenicia. — Hit- 
tites. — Hebrews. — Greece (Mycenaean and Aegean).- — Troy. — The Great 
Greek Migrations. — Etruscans. — China. — India. 

VI. First Millennium b.c, as far as the Eighth Century b.c. 20 

Egypt. — Hebrews. — Assyria. — Babylonia. — Phoenicia. — Greece. — 
India. — China. 

PART II 

VII. Eighth Century b.c. 23 

Greece. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Rome. — Egypt. — Hebrews. — 
Hittites. — Assyria. — Babylonia. — India. — China. — Japan. 

VIII. Seventh Century b.c. 26 

Greece. — Lydia. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Phrygia. — Rome. — Egypt. — 
Cyprus. — Hebrews. — Assyria. — Babylonia. — Persia. — India. — China. — 
Japan. 



CONTENTS 



IX. Sixth Century b.c 29 

Greece. — Lydia. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Rome and Etrus- 
cans. — Egypt. — Hittites. — Babylonia. — Persia. — Hebrews. — India. — 
China. 

X. Fifth Century b.c 35 

Greece. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Persia. — Egypt. — Carthage and Phoe- 
nicia. — Hebrews. — Rome. — India. — China. 

XI. Fourth Century b.c 41 

Greece. — Seleucid Kingdom of Syria. — Cyprus. — Carthage and 
Phoenicia. — Sicily. — Persia. — Egypt. — Hebrews. — Rome. — India. — 
China. 

XII. Third Century b.c . . -47 

Greece and Macedonia. — Kingdom of Pergamos. — Seleucid King- 
dom of Syria. — Parthian Kingdom. — Hebrews. — Egypt. — Sicily. — 
Carthage. — Rome. — India. — Ceylon. — China. 

XIII. Second Century b.c 53 

Greece and Macedonia. — Pergamos. — Rome. — Seleucid Kingdom. 
— Parthia. — Hebrews.— Egypt. — Armenia. — Sicily. — India. — Cey- 
lon. — China. — Japan. 

XIV. First Century b.c. . 58 

Rome. — Egypt. — Armenia. — Parthians. — Seleucids. — Western 
Asia. — Hebrews. — Britain. — India. — China. — Japan . 

XV. First Century a.d 63 

Roman Emperors. — Egypt under Roman Emperors. — Hebrews. — 
Parthians. — Armenia. — Britain. — India. — China. — Japan. 

XVI. Second Century a.d 67 

Rome. — Britain under Rome. — Parthia. — Egypt under Rome. — 
India. — China. 

XVII. Third Century a.d 70 

Rome. — Britain under Rome. — Parthians. — Egypt under Rome. — 
Sassanids (new kingdom of Persia). — India. — China. — Japan. 

XVIII. Fourth Century a.d 73 

Rome. — Egypt. — Britain. — Sassanids. — India. — China. — Japan. 

XIX. Fifth Century a.d . .78 

Roman Empire in the West. — Roman Empire in the East. — Egypt. 
— Sassanids. — Britain. — Ireland. — Spain. — Visigoths. — Venice. — 
Sicily. — France. — India. — China. — Japan. 

XX. Sixth Century a.d 82 

Later Roman Empire and Emperors at Constantinople and Ra- 
venna, and Gothic Kings of Italy. — Lombard Kings. — Venice. — 
Egypt. — Arabia. — England. — Ireland. — France (early Frankish kings). 
— India. — China. — Japan. 



CONTENTS 



vn 



XXI. Seventh Century a.d 87 

Emperors of the later Roman Empire at Constantinople. — Princi- 
pal Popes. — Lombard Kings. — Venice. — Arabia and the rise of Islam. 
— Armenia.— Jerusalem. — Egypt. — Frankish Kings and Mayors of the 
Palace. —England. — Ireland. — India. — Thibet. — China. — Japan. 

XXII. Eighth Century a.d 94 

Emperors at Constantinople. — Principal Popes. — Lombard Kings. 
— Venice. — Frankish Kings and Mayors. — Saracens. — Spain. — Eng- 
land. — Scotland. — Vikings. — India. — Java. — China. — Japan. 



PART III 
XXIII. Ninth Century a.d 101 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Italy. — Venice. — Europe gener- 
ally. — Norway. — Burgundy. — Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. —Saracens. 
—Egypt. — Spain. — England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — China. 
— Japan. 

XXIV. Tenth Century a.d 109 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Rome.— Italy. — Venice. — Eastern 
(Byzantine) Empire. — Saracens. — Egypt. — Spain. — France. — Nor- 
mandy. — Norway. — England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — China. 
— Japan. 

XXV. Eleventh Century a.d 117 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — Rome and Italy. — 
Venice. — Sicily. — Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. — Seljukian Turks. — 
Egypt. — France. — Anjou. — Spain. — Norway. — England. — Scotland. 
— Ireland. — Wales. — India. — Java. — China. — Japan. 

XXVI. Twelfth Century a.d 127 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Rome. — Italy. — Venice. — Sicily. 
— Eastern (Byzantine) Empire. — Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. — 
Seljukian Turks. — Egypt.— France. — Spain. — Portugal. — Norway.— 
England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — China. — Japan. 

XXVII. Thirteenth Century a.d 139 

Holy Roman Empire. — Holland. — Hanseatic League. — Popes. — 
Sicily. — Italy. — Florence. — Pisa. — Venice. — Genoa. — Milan. — 
Siena. — Orvieto. — Assisi. — Eastern (Byzantine) Empire and Latin and 
Greek divisions of Eastern Empire. — Frankish rulers in Greece. — 
Russia. — Seljukian Turks. — Egypt. — Spain. — France. — Norway. — 
England. — Europe generally. — Scotland. — Ireland. — Wales. — India. 
— China. — Japan. 

XXVIII. Fourteenth Century a.d 154 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — The two Sicilies. — 
Italy. — Rome. — Florence. — Venice. — Orvieto. — Siena. — Mantua. — 
Genoa. — Lucca. — Milan. — Eastern Empire (Palaeologi) — Ottoman 
Turks. — Egypt. — Greece. — Spain. — Portugal. — Norway. — Scandi- 
navia. — Switzerland. — Holland. — France. — Burgundy. — England. — 
Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — Tamerlane. — Siam. — China. — Japan. 



Vlll 



CONTENTS 



CHAP. 

XXIX. Fifteenth Century a.d 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — Rome. — The two 
Sicilies. — Venice. — Florence. — Orvieto. — Siena. — Perugia. — Milan. 
— Italy (generally). — Eastern Empire (Palaeologi). — Ottoman Turks. 
— Egypt. — Rulers of Greece. — Greece under the Turks. — Russia. — 
Spain. — Portugal. — Netherlands. — Burgundy. — France. — England. — 
Scotland. — Ireland. — Wales. — The New World. — India. — Java. — The 
Sikhs. — China. — Japan. 



PAGE 

171 



XXX. Sixteenth Century a.d 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — The two Sicilies. — 
Venice. — Florence and Grand Dukes of Tuscany. — Milan. — Greece 
under the Turks. — Remaining rulers in Greece. — Spain. — Portugal. — 
The Netherlands. — Scandinavia. — Turkey (Ottoman Empire). — Egypt. 
— Russia. — France. — England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — America. — 
India. — China. — Japan. 



191 



XXXI. Seventeenth Century a.d 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — Rome. — Venice. — 
Florence. — Milan. — Mantua. — Italian Literature. — Greece. — Turkey. 
— France. — Holland. — Sweden. — Denmark. — Norway. — Spain. — 
The two Sicilies. — Portugal. — Russia. — Poland. — England. — Scot- 
land. — Ireland. — India. — China. — Japan. 



212 



APPENDICES 



233 



I. Table of Notable Dates 

II. Berlin system of Egyptian 
dating 

III. Periods of Egyptian History 

IV. Crete (method of dating) 

V. Periods of Babylonian History 

VI. Epochs in Assyrian History 

VII. Names of the early Chaldean 

States. 

VIII. Nine Cities of Troy 

IX. Indian Religious Periods. 

X. Indian Art Periods 

XI. Periods of Greek Sculpture 

XII. Greek Vases 

XIII. Greek Painting 

XIV. Hermetic and Gnostic literature 
XV. Genealogy of Galla Placidia 

XVI. Genealogy of the Vandal Kings 

XVII. Ravenna, the three periods 

XVIII. Four periods of Byzantine Art 



XIX. Genealogy of the Julian Em- 
perors. 
XX. Christian Mosaics in Rome, 

Ravenna, etc. 
XXI. Descendants of Charles the 
Great 
XXII. Matilda, Countess of Tuscany 

XXIII. Hohenstaufen Family (origin 

of) 

XXIV. Crusades 

XXV. Foundation of Monastic orders 
XXVI. Roman Artists (sculptors and 
church decorators) 
XXVII. The Seven Electors 
XXVIII. The Medici Family 
XXIX. Periods of Chinese and Japan- 
ese painting 
XXX. Five Schools of Japanese 

painting 
XXXI. English Architecture 
XXXII. French Gothic Architecture 



CONTENTS 



ART SUPPLEMENT 

PAGE 

Painters of Europe from the Thirteenth Century . -253 



1. Italian, divided into Schools. 

2. Flemish do. 

3. German do. 

4. Dutch. 



5. French. 

6. Spanish, divided into Schools. 

7. Portuguese. 

8. English. 



Miniatures in Illuminated MSS 269 

Notes on the sequence of miniatures of European countries from the first century 
a.d. to the seventeenth century. 

Principal Sculptors of European Countries . . . .276 



Italian. 

Franco-Flemish. 
Flemish. 
Flemish-Burgundian. 



French. 
English. 
German. 
Spanish. 



Bibliography 281 

Abbreviations 283 

Index 285 



INTRODUCTION 

TO acquire an intelligent knowledge and appreciation of his- 
tory, art, and literature, some acquaintance with Chronology 
is indispensable. Frequently regarded as a somewhat dull and 
dry branch of learning, it can become a most attractive and even 
fascinating study when used as a guide to trace the contemporary 
events of the world and their relation to and influence on one 
another, and also to follow the rise and fall of civilizations. 

Travellers often feel the need of reference to chronological records 
in order to fix and understand the sequence of events in the country 
in which they are travelling, and their relative position to the 
history of other countries, but they are necessarily without the 
various books required for the purpose. This handbook is intended 
to supply the need in as portable and light a form as possible. It 
is in no sense a history: the most important only of the events, 
people, art, and literature are tabulated as clues by which history 
may be built up, the short notes being added to illustrate the com- 
parative conditions of the various countries, and their intercourse 
with one another; and the selections have been made principally 
in view of what is considered likely to be of use to travellers. 

The tables were originally made for my own personal use during 
many winters spent in Egypt, Greece, and Italy; and they have 
been enlarged and are now published in the hope that they may 
be of assistance to those who, like myself, have felt the need of 
some such handbook to replace in a small degree the various books 
of reference necessarily left at home. India, China, and Japan 
have been added to give some idea of the contemporary condi- 
tions of the Orient. India has been composed of many countries 
and various civilizations, and its early chronology is very tangled, 
therefore few points only are given of general importance, just to 
trace the whereabouts of the great continent in the world's history. 

The volume is divided into three parts, together with an Appendix 

and an Art Supplement. 

xi 



xii INTRODUCTION 

Part I contains some clues as to the nature of the remains and 
records of the prehistoric period and the earliest approximate 
dating of the historic periods as far as the eighth century B.C. The 
dates are arranged in Millenniums, one Millennium in each chapter. 
Many of these early archaeological datings are, of course, only 
approximate, and are subject to revision as new discoveries are 
made, so that they cannot all be considered exact and final. In 
the case of Crete, it has been difficult to arrange the early Minoan 
civilization in the Millenniums. The chronology of Crete is at 
present fluid, and it is distributed into nine periods (see Ap- 
pendix IV), according to their relation to the Egyptian dynasties. 
There are two distinct systems of calculating the Egyptian dyn- 
asties anterior to the end of Dyn. XVII — the Berlin system and 
Petrie's system. After Dyn. XVII the two systems agree, as the 
Egyptian records then definitely supply accurate dates. Petrie's 
system has been adopted for the Egyptian tables in preference to 
the Berlin system, and the nine Cretan periods are consequently 
placed in accordance with his calculation. 

PART II commences with the eighth century B.C., the period of 
the first Olympiad and the foundation of Rome, and continues to 
the eighth century A.D., the coronation of Charles the Great and 
the foundation of the Holy Roman Empire, and the tables in this 
part are arranged in centuries, one century in each chapter. 

PART III continues from the coronation of Charles the Great 
(A.D. 800) to the end of the seventeenth century, comprising medi- 
aeval history and the Renaissance, arranged in centuries, one cen- 
tury in each chapter. 

The Appendices are added to give some dates which required to 
be arranged in groups, and also a few genealogies which are specially 
important in their relation to the tables. 

The Art Supplement contains a chronological arrangement of 
painters and sculptors of various European countries from the 
thirteenth century to the seventeenth century, arranged in national 
sections and, as far as possible, subdivided into the various schools, 
and also some notes on miniature painting in illuminated MSS. 

Rabie Hart. 

HlGHGATE. 

March 1912. 



A COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGY 

PART I 

PREHISTORIC DOWN TO THE EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 



CHAPTER I 

PREHISTORIC NOTES ANTERIOR TO THE FIFTH MILLENNIUM B.C., AND 
APPROXIMATE DATING 

Egypt. — Cyprus. — Babylon. — Crete. — China. 

EGYPT 
Approximate dating 

C. 8000 B.C. About the beginning of continuous civilization according to 
f t discoveries made in cemeteries, divided into two periods, the 

earlier probably connected with the West (Libya) superseded 
by a race from the Eastern desert. Objects found include 
varieties of handmade pottery with basket and other patterns 
incised, and rude figures and animals painted. Ivory reliefs 
and wands engraved with human and animal forms. Carved 
relief slate palettes, small primitive figures. Beads (a) of gold 
on various cores, {b) of glaze on frit and stone, {c) of semi- 
precious stones, {d) of amber, and (<?) of iron. Linen, leather, 
and metal work in copper and gold. A distinctive art of 
Egypt begins to appear shortly before the first Dyn., and 
a bold, naturalistic style of carving rising. Hieroglyphic 
writing being rapidly developed from the ideographic stage. 

DYN. O Kings tombs identified and some objects belonging to period, 
before Ka Ap. Inscriptions. Vases. Clay seals. Writing in use. 

5000 B.C. Ro. Pottery jars. Alabaster jars. His name scratched in 
hieroglyphics. 

Zezer. Fragments of stone vase and name. 
Zar, or the Scorpion. Carved mace-head. 
Sma, united all Egypt. Inscriptions on vases of basalt. Crystal 
and Syenite. Ivory work. 

Nar-Mer. Great slate palette. Carved mace-head. Ivory 
cylinder and tablet. (He is now placed in the first Dyn.) 



2 ANTERIOR TO FIFTH MIILENNIUM B.C. [chap, i 

CYPRUS 

Date of earliest period disputable when foreign imports were few. First 
known culture may be considered indigenous, no close parallel has been 
found with neighbouring areas (closest are with Hissalik). An exchange 
of manufactures and relationship with the Nile Valley in prehistoric times. 
Asiatic influence came later. 

BABYLON. (Sumerian period) 

Approximate dating 
Before 

6000 Susa founded. 
C. 5000 Eridu founded, according to tradition, by Ea, the mysterious 
fish-man, one of the principal gods of the Chaldeans. He is 
also said to have taught various elements of civilization and 
instructed Utu-Napistin, the Babylonian Noah, how to make a 
ship to save himself from the coming flood (see page 10). 
Eridu formerly situated on the Persian Gulf, approximate dating 
calculated by time of silting up of the coast-line, which moved 
forty-seven miles in 2,200 years. 
Marduk, son of Ea of Eridu, Babylonian national god. 

CRETE. (Pre-Minoan) 

C. 10000 Neolithic settlements at Knossos and Phaestos, etc., beneath 
the earliest Minoan. Stone axes. Maces of serpentine. Ob- 
sidian knives. Stone and clay spindle whorles. Potsherds 
with incised markings filled with white gypsum. 

CHINA. (Probably an offshoot from Sumerian stock) 

A mythological and legendary period, no monuments. The Chinese 
refer their origin to a fabulous creature called Pan ku, whom they call 
the first human being, followed by ten distinct epochs of sovereigns of 
whom nothing is known but the names. They are followed by 

The Heavenly Emperors. Thirteen brothers, each with a reign 
of 18,000 years. 

The Terrestrial Emperors. Eleven brothers. 

The Human Emperors. Nine brothers. 

The Five Dragons and other generations bearing fanciful names. 

The Nest Builders. Thirteen families. 

The Fire-producer, Sui-J6n, after whom Chinese standard chron- 
ology begins at 2852 b.c as adopted by the greater part of native 
historians. 



chap, ii] FIFTH MILLENNIUM B.C. 3 

CHAPTER II 

FIFTH MILLENNIUM B.C. 
Egypt. — Crete. — Babylon. 

EGYPT. (Archaic Period) 

Beginning of continuous history. Approximate dating of the 
kings as given in Petrie's History, ed. 1903. In 1907, in consequence of 
new discoveries, he altered the dates of the Dyns. anterior to the eighteenth 
Dyn. and placed Nar-Mer in the first Dyn. instead of Dyn. O. The new 
dating is given in italics under the old dating.* 

DYN. I. Eight kings mentioned by Manetho, and principal events and 
objects. 
C. 4777 Men a. First king ruling over all Egypt. Founded Memphis 
5546 and temple of Ptah. Great canal. Development of kingdom. 
Expedition to Sinai for turquoise and copper. Hieroglyphic 
inscriptions on ivory and ebony tablets. Carving emerging 
from the Archaic style, but not yet free. Tomb at Abydos. 
Wife, Neith-hetep. 
4715 Zer-Ta. Medical works attributed to this reign. Fine jewel- 
5484 lery. Tomb at Abydos. 
4658 Zet-Ath. Earliest hieratic writing known. 

5427 

4627 Merneit. Probably a queen. Seal with list of nomes. De- 

5396 velopment of public officials. Tomb at Abydos. 

4604 Den-Setui. Clay sealings show increase of titles, pointing 

5373 t0 growth of bureaucracy. Figure of king on tablets. Some 

chapters of the " Book of the Dead " attributed to this reign 

which seems to have been very great. Tomb at Abydos. 
4584 Azab-Merpaba, also called Sekhem-Ab. Seten Bity and 
S3S3 Ka names placed together in sealings. Tomb at Abydos. 
4558 Mersekha-Shemsu. Great rock-cut scene in Sinai. Tomb 
5327 at Abydos. 

4548 Qa-Sen. Writing becoming more general. Expedition to 
5309 Sinai. Tomb at Abydos. 

Linen mummy cloths of Dyn. I very fine and evenly woven. 

Vases resembling Cretan vases found in Dyn. I tombs at 

Abydos. 
DYN. II. Nine kings mentioned by Manetho. 
4514 Hotep Ahaui. Bezau. 

5293 

4476 Ra-Neb Ka-Kau. Manetho states he established worship 

525-3" of Apis Bull at Memphis, Mnevis Bull at Heliopolis, and 

Goat of Mendes. Development of primitive animal worship. 

Tomb at Abydos. 

* For the Berlin System of Egyptian dating see Appendix II. 



4 FIFTH MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap. 11 

4437 Ba-neter-en. According to Manetho he ordained that the 

3216 throne might pass through female line. 

4390 Perab Sen, or Sekhem-ab. Tomb at Abydos. 4373 Send. 

3169 3132 

4332 Ka-Ra. 4315 Nefer-Ka-Ra. 

5111 5094 

4290 Kha-Sekhem, or Seker-Nefer-Ka. Seated figure, with slain enemies 

3069 on base. Good sculpture. 

4242 Khase-Khemui, Hezef. Birthday noted on Palermo stone. 

5021 

DYN. III. Nine kings mentioned by Manetho. Tombs at Abydos. 

4212 Sa-Nekht, Nebka. Scarabs. Simple work. Mostly blue and 

4991 green pottery. Tomb at Beit Khallaf. 

4184 Zezer, Neter-Khet. Step pyramid, Saqqara, lined with glazed 

496 3 tiles. Name found at Sinai. Tomb at Beit Khallaf. 

4024 Sneferu, ninth king. Temple and pyramid at Medum. Events on 

4803 Palermo stone. Temple at Sinai of this date. Statue of wife 
Mertitefs at Leyden. Statues of Ra Hotep and Nefert belong to 
this reign, ranking among the finest sculpture Egypt ever pro- 
duced. Also wooden panels of Ra Hesi. 
During these first three Dyns. the continuous development of civilization 

can be traced. Painting on walls. The Geese, from Medum, called the 

" first picture in the world." 

CRETE. (See Appendix IV for method of dating) 

Early Minoan I = Dyns. I-V of Egypt. 

Black pottery, hand burnished (Bucchero), and black glaze, painted 
white and vermilion, geometric patterns. Primitive stone idols. Stone 
and clay vessels, showing contact with old kingdom of Egypt. 

Knossos. Early pottery and Proto-dynastic Egyptian form of vases. No 
remains of palace building. 

BABYLON, Early States. (See Appendix VII) 

Approximate dating of some of the rulers of the early states of 
Lagash and Kish, events and objects found, gathered from Boscawen, 
Petrie, and Norton. In 1910 L. W. King published the alternative dates 
added in italics. 5000 B.C. probable date of earliest inscriptions on broken 
vases recording Wars of Kish and Sumeri ( = Shinar of Genesis). 

LAGASH 

C. 4500 Urnina, King of Lagash ( = Shirpurla). Head on tablet in 
3000 Louvre as a sacrificing priest. Sent to Sinai for hard stone and 
wood. 

C. 4500 Akurzal, King of Lagash. Baked clay bricks with name 
3000 (B.M.). 

C. 4400 Eannatum, King of Lagash, son of Akurzal. The great 



chaps, ii-iii] FIFTH AND FOURTH MILLENNIUMS B.C. 5 

Vulture Stele, part in B.M., part in Louvre, inscribed with 
name and account of conquest and sculpture of battle scenes, 
figures of king and god Ningirsu. Clay bricks and inscriptions in 
semi-pictorial or line Babylonian writing recording sinking of a 
well in a temple of Ningirsu. 
C. 4400 Entemena, son of Eannatum. Fragment of black basalt mortar 

3000 dedicated to the goddess Nina, the fish goddess. Marble gate 
to sockets and inscription with name recording building of temple, 

2goo names and titles. List of temples built during his reign. Silver 
vase, shape resembling Chinese. Cones, one referring to Mesilim. 

KISH 
Undated Mesilim, early King of Kish. A votive mace-head (B.M.) 
dedicated by him to the god Ningirsu, whose temple he restored 
at Lagash, six lions running round it attacking each other. 
Before Manishtusu, King of Kish (Biblical Cush). Earliest his- 
4000 torical records. Mace-head. Obelisk with text of some sixty- 
2700 nine columns in semi-pictorial Semitic-Babylonian script of 
religious, historical, and agricultural records, the last showing 
well-developed system of land survey and valuation. Judge 
mentioned, implying law. 

Mesalim, King of Kish, son of Manishtusu. Name on obelisk of 
Manishtusu has been confounded with Mesilim, the earlier king. 
Marad, a town of Kish. Kings of Kish called Nin-Marad. Origin 
of name Nimrod (Genesis, x, 8-10). By some authorities Nimrod has been 
identified with Gilgames, mythical hero of the great Babylonian epic, 
who was a native of Marad and ruler of Ereck. Others have identified 
Nimrod with Bel-Meradach, chief divinity of Babylon, a name coming 
through the old form of Mirad. 

CHAPTER III 

FOURTH MILLENNIUM B.C. 
Egypt. — Crete. — Babylonia. 

EGYPT. (Early kingdom) 

Approximate dating 
DYN. IV. Eight kings, three most important given. Very fine Art 
period of the Pyramid age, greater part of the really fine sculpture and 
reliefs belongs to this period. 

C.3969 Khufu. Cheops of Herodotus, second king. Built great Pyra- 

4748 mid at Gizeh. Rock tablet in Sinai. Inscription at Tel el 

Amarna. Ivory portrait statuette Cairo. Scarabs. Lists of priests 

and keepers of Pyramid. 

3908 Khafra, third king. Chephren of Herodotus. Built second 

4687 Pyramid at Gizeh and granite temple. Very fine portrait 

statues. Scarabs. Lists of priests. 



FOURTH MILLENNIUM B.C. 



[chap. Ill 



3845 Men-Kau-Ra, fourth king. Menkeres of Herodotus. Built 
4624. third Pyramid at Gizeh. Scarabs rare. Fine portrait statue. 
DYN. V. Nine kings. From this Dyn. onwards kings adopted the Sa 
Ra title, "Son of the Sun," claiming descent from the sun-god Ra. 
Palermo Stone attributed to Dyn. V. 

C.3680 Nefer-Ar-Ka-Ra, third king. Many remains of all kinds of 
4452 records of this reign giving details of life of the people, but history- 
more fragmentary. 
3580 Dad-Ka-Ra, or Assa. Expedition to Punt. Earliest well-dated 
4352 literary composition, the " Proverbs of Ptah-hotep " tutor of the 

king. 
3536 Unas, ninth king. Pyramid-tomb at Saqqara with finely cut 
4308 religious texts. Tomb of Thy at Saqqara belongs to this reign. 
DYN. VI. Eight kings. All have Pyramids at Saqqara, with walls 
engraved with texts of " Book of the Dead," now called " Pyramid texts," 
of great value as records of religious ideas and construction of language. 
Lists of priests and keepers of Pyramids. Small brick arches in use. 
3467 Pepy I, Mery-Ra, third king. Active, vigorous ruler. Great 
4239 copper statue Cairo. Many monuments exist, and many valuable 
details of history and life recorded by his official Una. Tomb of 
Mery at Saqqara. 
DYNS. VII to X. Little known beyond the names of kings and some 



inscriptions. 

3335 DYN. 

4077 

3 2 5 2 

4007 

3106 

3907 
3006 
3807 



VII 



DYN. VIII 



DYN. IX 



DYN. X 



Periods of comparative obscurity. 

Memphite Dyn. decayed and Government moved to 
Heracleopolis during Dyn. X. 



CRETE. (See Appendix IV for method of dating) 

Early Minoan 11 = Dyn. VI of Egypt. 

Stone vases resembling Egyptian. Pottery advancing, Schnabelkanne 
or " beaked " vases. Mottled ware of Vaseliki. 

Hagia Triada. Beehive tomb, rude stone seals, very primitive idols. 
Copper daggers with triangular blades. 

Early Minoan III = Dyns. VII to X of Egypt. 

Use of pottery wheel begins. Vases of very thin clay, zigzag and 
spiral ornaments. Seals with motives of VI Dyn. Egyptian button 
seals. Flat fiddle-shaped figurines resembling those of Amorgas and 
early Aegean. Early Minoan necropolis at Mokhlos, beautiful vases 
of Breccia, alabaster, marble, and soap stone. Very fine gold work, 
leaves, and flowers. 
The arts of Crete, Egypt, and Mycenae show points of contact. 



chaps, m-iv] FOURTH AND THIRD MILLENNIUMS B.C. 7 

Early Minoan I, II, III. Earliest form of writing, pictographic sym- 
bols engraved on seals and gems. 



BABYLONIA. (End of Sumerian, beginning of Semitic period) 

Approximate dating. The alternative dates in italics published by 
L. W. King in 191a. 

C. 3800 Sargon of Agade, King of Babylon. Founder of the Semite 
2630 Empire in Western Asia. Tablet in B.M. with legend concern- 
ing his birth and infancy resembling story of Moses. Many 
important inscriptions and cylinder seals, and details are also 
known from later inscriptions. Stone mace-head with dedication 
to the "Sun-god." Empire extended from the Persian Gulf to 
the Mediterranean and Island of Cyprus. Beginning of litera- 
ture, fragments of poems and legends — -two are well preserved, 
i.e., " The Cosmic Epic " and the " National or Gilgames 
Epic." Many seals with representations of Gilgames and his 
companion Ea-Bani in B.M. and Louvre. Important astrological 
table B.M. 
3750 Naram-Sin, son of Sargon. Period of fusion of Sumerians 
2600 and Semites. Founded temple of Sun-god at Sippur. Good Art 
period. Stele of victory found at Susa proving many military 
expeditions including Sinai, very good sculptured relief. Later 
inscriptions give records of the reign. 
The date 3750 is fixed by a cylinder of Narbonidus (555-538 B.C.) which 
states that Naram-Sin reigned 3200 years before Narbonidus. The accuracy 
of the statement is doubted by L. W. King, who published the alternative 
Babylonian dates in 1910 founded on various conjectures. 
3000 Nineveh in existence, fish town or dwelling, name derived from 
fish goddess Nina, unknown by whom or when founded, sub- 
sequently became the capital of Assyria. 

Rock cuttings showing musical instruments. Silver and cop- 
per worked before Sargon. Also metal-casting known. Name 
Tubal Cain or Jubal possibly derived from or confused with 
Gibel, the Babylonian Fire-god. 



CHAPTER IV 

THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. 
Egypt. — Crete. — Babylonia. — Hebrews. — Aegean ( Greece). — Phoenicia. — China. 

EGYPT. (Early Kingdom) 

Approximate dating. 

DYN. XL Number of kings and order difficult. Opinions differ. They 

2965 all bore the names Antef or Mentuhetep. Many scarabs, in- 

3622 scriptions, and monuments, and many details known, but names 



8 THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, iv 

confusing, being similar. Mentuhetep III, a powerful king, prob- 
ably the builder of the great temple at Der-el-Bahri. Some good 
relief work. 
DYN. XII. MIDDLE KINGDOM. Eight kings. Very important period, 
one of the greatest of Egyptian History. Vigorous rulers. Art very fine 
and Literature flourishing. Great Sphinx at Gizeh considered by some 
authorities to be of this Dyn., the face a portrait of one of the kings. Best 
period of beads in form and colour. Country most prosperous. 
2778 Amenemhat I. Great administrator. First recorded conquests 
3579 m Nubia. Fine scarabs. Novel "Adventures of Sa-nehat" ex- 
cellent picture of life of the time. 
2758 Senusert I. Greek Sesostris. Country very prosperous. Great 
3559 soldier and administrator. Temple at Heliopolis. Fine portrait 
statues and scarabs. Full records of his reign in tomb of Ameny at 
Beni Hasan. 
2716 Amenemhat II. Founded temple of Hathor in Sinai. Full in- 
3517 scriptions and records in Beni Hasan tombs. 

2685 Senusert II. Pyramid at Illahun and workmen's town at Kahun. 
3483 Many objects, including Cretan (Kamares) pottery. Inscriptions at 

Beni Hasan in tomb of Khnum Hotep. 
2660 Senusert III. A great conqueror. Many important inscriptions. 
34.61 Very fine jewellery found at Dahshur. Many scarabs. Canal at 
Assouan. Hymn of praise dedicated to him. Probably the Sesostris 
of Herodotus. 
2622 Amenemhat III. A great builder. Reclaimed the Fayoum by 
3423 great engineering water works. Lake Moeris and labyrinth. Pyra- 
mid at Hawara. 
2578 Amenemhat IV. Decline of Dyn. Monuments less numerous. 
3379 Few scarabs. 

2569 Sebek-Neferu. Queen of Amenemhat IV. Reigned after his 
3370 death. 

DYN. XIII. A dark period. Manetho gives fifty-five kings, of whom com- 
2565 paratively few remains are known. Some of them Babylonian; such 
3366 names as Khenzer and Khandy. Scarabs and Cylinders recording 
to names of some. The Amherst Papyrus mentions tomb robbery 
2112 during XIII Dyn. 
2Q13 

DYN. XIV. A dark period. Many short reigns. Weakening of the king- 
2 1 1 2 dom made it an easy prey to the Hyksos invaders. 
2913 

CRETE. (See Appendix IV for method of dating) 

Middle Minoan I = Dyn. XI of Egypt. Civilization advancing. Fine 
polychrome pottery, and designs developing with greater freedom. 
Also geometric, and relief coming into use. No surviving link with 
Egyptian Art. 

Knossos. Early palace. Vase with goat, kids, and beetle in dark glaze. 

Phaestos. Early palace. 



chap, iv] THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. 



Petsofa. Clay figurines, polychrome, the so-called Queen Elizabeth style. 

Hagia Triada. Domed tomb. 

Middle Minoan II = Dyn. XII of Egypt. 

Beautiful Kamares ware or egg-shell pottery, graceful designs, and 

rich colour, named from the cave on Mount Ida where first found. 

Also found in XII Dyn. tombs in Egypt. 
Knossos. Large early palace on site of an earlier one destroyed by fire. 

Seal stones resembling XII Dyn. scarabs. Close of period traces of a 

catastrophe and palace burnt. 
Dictean Cave. Votive offerings in bronze and terra-cotta, and objects 

for toilet use found in sacrificial stratum. 
During Middle period the pictographic writing gradually developed 
into a hieroglyphic system; the script was indigenous, but much borrowed 
from Egypt. 
Middle Minoan III = Dyns. XIII-XVII of Egypt. (See next chapter.) 

BABYLON 

Some of the most important rulers of various states and cities and 
principal events and records, etc. The alternative dates in italics published 
in 1 910 by L. W. King. 

Ur Bau. Great temple builder and restorer; irrigation works. 
Considerable records of his reign remain; statue of him with 
inscription, head lost. 
C. 2800 Gudea. Priest-king, or patisi (governor) of Lagash (Shirpurla). 
2450 Great town and temple builder. Palace at Lagash, statues with 
long inscriptions and details of imports, etc. Gate sockets, bricks, 
and tablets, and bronze figure of a god. Seated figure of Gudea, 
Louvre. Trade intercourse. Law courts and numerous officials. 
Deified and worshipped after his death, as were several other 
rulers of this period. 
2800 Ur Ningirsu. Son and successor of Gudea. Stone gate socket 
2400 and account of building of a temple, B.M. Ceremonial mace- 
head. 
2800 Ur Engur. King of Ur, established the Dyn. of Ur (of the 
2400 Chaldees). Great builder. Cylinder (in B.M.) showing him 

before the Moon god, Sin. Deified after his death. 
2400 Dungi. King of Ur. Captured Babylon. Inscriptions. Tablets 

with accounts of distribution of grain (B.M.). A long reign. 
2400 Bur-Sin, his son. Brick inscriptions (B.M.). 
2350 

Gimel-Sin, son of Bur-Sin. Stone gate sockets and inscrip- 
tion recording building of a temple. Bronze figure (B.M.). 
Rule passed to the city of Isin, a Semite kingdom, Dyn. of sixteen 
kings. Known as the Isin Dyn. Followed by Larsa Dyn. 

C. 30,000 tablets found at Tello, the site of Lagash, of the reigns of the 
early kings of the second Dyn. of Ur. They give information of an ancient 
Revenue System by which each district kept its own revenue returns. 



THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, iv 



FIRST GREAT BABYLONIAN EMPIRE 

Dates differ slightly according to different authorities. 
C. 2300 Sumu-Abu. First king. 

2290 Sumu-la-ilu. Built a fortress in Babylon. Tablets (B.M.), 

with full details. 
2255 Zabu. Built temples in Sippar. Tablets (B.M.). Full details 

of life. 
2240 Apil-Sin. Tablets (B.M.). Full details of life. 
2220 Sin Muballit. Tablets (B.M.). Full details of life. Father of 

the great Khammurabi. 
2200 Khammurabi, or Hammurabi" (Hebrew, Amraphel?). Great 
ruler and lawgiver. United the whole of the city kingdoms of 
Babylonia. Thousands of dated legal and commercial clay 
documents are known, also a concise canon of events of his 
time and a historical epitome of his reign. His great code of 
laws (the oldest code) resembles the negative confession of the 
Egyptians in principles; it is one of the most important dis- 
coveries of Oriental research. Cast in B.M. of fine stele with 
sculpture and text (original in Louvre) showing scene of the king 
receiving the law from the Sun-god, Shamash. Country reached 
a high pitch of civilization and prosperity. Probable time of 
Abram. 
Very important tablets, known as the Gilgames Series (B.M.), 
including the Flood tablet placed before 2300 B.C.; author, Sin-Liqi- 
Unnini (see page 2). Also the original Creation tablets, which were copied 
seventh century B.C., are placed about the same time, 2300 B.C. 

Old folk-lore poem of god Isum, the god of infectious diseases. Time 
of literary activity during this millennium. 
Five kings followed Khammurabi. 

(1) Samsu-iluna, son of Khammurabi; (2) Abeshu, his grandson; 
(3) Ammiditana. Letters and tablets in B.M.; (4) Ammizadugga. 
Chronological tablet of first Dyn. and fragment of Deluge story; (5) Samsu- 
ditana. Invasion of Hittites from the mountains of Cappadocia; they 
captured Babylonia and ended this Dyn. of kings. Carried off the statues 
of the national god Marduk and his consort, the goddess Sarpanitum. 



HEBREWS 

After Settlement of a Semitic tribe around the site of Jerusalem with 
2500 a mixture of other elements, according to some authorities 

Hittites. 
2300 The family of Terah, the father of Abram, left Ur, a Semitic 
to centre, and wandered north to Haran, near Edessa. Part of the 
2250 movement of the migration of the Semitic tribes. Migration of 

Terah probably c. 2270. 



chap, iv] THIRD MILLENNIUM B.C. n 

Period of Abram most nearly fixed by connection with Amraphel, 
King of Shinar, who is most likely Khammurabi, but Amraphel has also 
been identified with the father of Khammurabi. 
C. 21 10 Abram entered Canaan. 



GREECE 
C. 3000 Early Aegean. Probable commencement of the civilization of 
to the coasts and islands of the Aegean Sea; Paros, Naxos, Amor- 
2500 gas, Thera, etc. Rude graves, bronze weapons, terra-cotta vases 
with incised ornament. Rude flat marble idols. Copper in use. 
Early Mycenaean civilization also beginning. Troy. {See 
Appendix VIII.) 
C. 2500 Early Aegean and Mycenaean civilizations rising. 
C. 2000 (probably). The upheaval which destroyed Thera (Santorin), 
and which preserved the primitive relics of the early Aegean 
civilization by covering them. 

PHOENICIA 
2500 Tyre founded according to Herodotus. Sidon older and more 

important. 

Phoenician civilization, political importance, and trade increasing 

and developing. Trade intercouse with Egypt, Babylon, Arabia, 

and India. 
2000 Semitic emigrants entered Phoenicia. 

CHINA. (Golden Age) 
Some of the most important names of the legendary Golden Age; dating 

according to the Chinese Standard Chronology. 

2900 Events recorded by knots in lengths of cords. 

2852 Fu-hi. Alleged first emperor. Official name meaning "The 
to Great Almighty." Tradition records him as a great civilizer, giving 

2738 the country its first regular institutions. Said to have invented the 
eight trigraphs, the original lineal writing of China. Historians 
unable to name an inventor within the historical period. Stone 
sculptures of second century represent him as half human, half fish. 
Fabulous length of reigns of early emperors. 

2704 Huang-ti. The great Yellow Emperor. Said to have extended 
to the Empire greatly and driven away the Hun-yii, who were prob- 

2595 ably the ancestors of the Huns of King Attila. A number of the 
fundamental elements of the Chinese civilization attributed to him. 
Among them the " South Pointing Chariot," or use of the magnetic 
needle. Writing called "The Script of Birds' Footprints" intro- 
duced. His wife, Lii-tsu, studied the rearing of silkworms, and 
brought silk industry to a high state of perfection, and embroidered 
flowers and birds on silk garments herself. Huang-ti said to have 



12 THIRD AND SECOND MILLENNIUMS B.C. [chaps, iv-v 

had twelve bronze mirrors made, but we have no authentic speci- 
men before the Han Dyn., 206 B.C. to a.d. 264. The mirrors regarded 
as sacred, and carried as a charm. 

2595 Shau-hau. His son. Continued the works of his father. A 
peaceful reign. Custom of embroidering uniforms of civil officials 
with birds, and military officials with beasts of prey, said to date 
from this time. 

2357 Yan. The history written by Confucius begins with this Emperor. 
He and his successor, Shun, are perhaps the most popular figures 
in Chinese history as taught by the Chinese. The Confucian 
history records a great deluge described by Yan; also a great 
advance in astronomy. 

2250 Shun. A great emperor. A self-made man rising from the people. 

2205 Hea-po. Great emperor of the Hia Dyn. Drained the country 
from the great floods. The first continuous Dyn. of what native 
authors consider history. 

2205 Yii or Ta-yii. Cut great canals through the hills to let the 
floods out, and executed great earthworks to control the overflow 
of rivers. Said to have cast bronze tripods. Followed by 
sixteen emperors of no particular brilliancy till the end of the 
Hia Dyn. in 1766. First mention in Chinese history of eclipse of 
the sun. 

CHAPTER V 

SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. 

Egypt. — Cyprus. — Crete. — Babylonia. — Assyria. — Phoenicia. • — Hittites. — Hebrews. — 
Greece (Mycenaean and Aegean). — Troy. — The Great Greek Migrations. — Etruscans. — 

China. — India. 

EGYPT. (Middle Kingdom) 

DYNS. XV and XVI. The Hyksos period. A period of comparative 
obscurity, though recently much opened up by excavations in 1905 at 
Tell-el-yehudijeh, the Hyksos cemetery and camp; probably the camp of 
Avaris, and the Hyksos capital. The Hyksos, a Semitic people from the 
triangle of country between Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia — the name 
probably meaning " Prince of the Deserts." 

DYN. XV. Manetho gives the names of six shepherd kings, also called 
Phoenician-Hyksos, coming through Syria into Egypt; five have probably 
been identified by scarabs. 

Names given by Manetho. Scarabs found. 

Salatis = Ant-her. 
Beon = Semqen. 

Apakhnas 

Staan = Khyan, name found also in Crete and Bagdad. 

Arkhles = Yaqeb-her Mer-user-ra. 
Apofis = Apepa Se-user-ra, identified himself with Egyptians. 



CHAP. V] 



SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. 



!3 



DYN. XVI. Manetho gives thirty-two names of Hyksos-Hellenic shep- 
herd kings. Scarabs of twenty-three have been found. 



Nefer-ka-ra. 

Nub-ka-ra. 

Kheper-ra. 

Ka-ra. 

Aa-neb-ra. 

Aazed. 



Sekt. 

Sam-ka-ra 

Neferui-uah-ra. 

Maa-ab-ra. 

Shesha. 

Aaq-er (mu). 



Kha-user-ra. 
Se-khan-ra. 
Yaqeb-el (mu) 
Aa (mu) 
Aa-hotep-ra. 
Qar. 



Ykha (mu). 
Ya (mu). 
Maa-ra. 
Nuby-ra. 
Ra or Er-du-ra 
(mu). 



Joseph most likely in Egypt during the Hyksos period, not in the 

time of Thothmes III as has been formerly believed. 

DYN. XVII. A time of struggle by invading Berbers, ''who expelled 

the Hyksos and picked up the threads of the old civilization and founded 

the XVIII Dyn. Particulars of the rise of Dyn. XVII in c. 1738 lost 

under Hyksos power. Later kings assert independence. 

1660 Seqenen Ra I. Ta-aa. Wife, Queen Aah-hotep. 

Seqenen Ra II. Ta-aa-aa. Nothing known but his tomb. 
Seqenen Ra III. Ta-aa-qen. A Berber. Queen, Aah-hotep. 
Fine jewellery and treasure in her tomb. Parents of the great Queen 
Aahmes-Nefertari. 

DYN. XVIII. Chronology from this point undisputed. NEW KING- 
DOM. A splendid period of Egyptian history. Zenith of power. 
Aahmes I. Expulsion of Hyksos. Capture of Avares. Aahmes 
subsequently entered Syria. Wife, the great Queen Aahmes- 
Nefertari, who was worshipped till Dyn. XXVI as a divinity. Teta 
Shera stele. 

Amenhotep I. Kingdom consolidated. Successful campaign in 
Nubia and against the Libyans. Queens Aahotep II and Sen Senb. 
Thothmes I. Great king. Many conquests in Mesopotamia in 
the north, to Nubia in the south. Began a temple at Der-el-Bahri. 
Pylon at Karnak and obelisks. Queens Aahmes and Mut-Nefert. 
Thothmes II. Built at Karnak and Der-el-Bahri. Not such a 
great man as the others of his name. Queens, his sister Hatshepsut, 
and Aset. 

Hatshepsut. The great queen, reigned till 1503 with her hus- 
band and brother, Thothmes II, and till 148 1 with Thothmes III, 
her nephew. Is now called the "Queen Bess" of Egypt. Great temple 
at Der-el-Bahri, and important reliefs of Punt expedition, etc. Many 
fine relics, etc. 

Thothmes III. Egypt reached the culminating point of her 
glory. He conquered and ruled Syria, Egypt, and Nubia. His 
reign the fullest of historical records. Innumerable monuments and 
inscriptions, also small objects. Great Art period — portrait- 
statues, etc. Work very fine, but less simple and pure than the 
early art. Syrian influence noticeable in the art after his conquests. 



^35 
1610 



1587 



1562 



i54i 



1516 



1516 



x 5°3 



14 SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, v 

Books of the Am Duat and the Pylons compiled. Great Hathor 
cow of Der-el-Bahri. Intercourse with Crete and Cyprus. 

1449 Amenhotep II. Son of Thothmes III. Less eventful reign. 

1423 Thothmes IV. Stele in front of Sphinx at Gizeh recording its 
restoration by him. 

1414 Amenhotep III. Great king, called "the Magnificent." Built 
temple at Luxor, and buildings all over Egypt. Large scarabs with 
hunting and historical inscriptions (B.M.). Tel-el- Amarna letters and 
correspondence with Syria and Babylon. Decline of the great 
power abroad beginning. Many private tombs with official records 
of importance. Wife, Queen Tyi, and others, one a daughter of 
Tushratta, King of Mitani. 

1383 Amenhotep IV, son of Amenhotep III and Queen Tyi. Very 
important reign. He changed the official religion of the country 
from polytheism to monotheism, the worship of the Sun-disc. 
Called himself Akhenaten (the glory of the Sun-disc). Moved 
the chief seat of worship from Thebes to Tel-el- Amarna, and broke 
the great power of the priests of Amon. Tel-el-Amarna letters, 
correspondence with Syria, Babylon, and Assyria, B.M. Beautiful 
hymns to the Sun-disc. New and realistic style of art and coloured 
glazing. Foreign policy weak, lost Syria, and condition of the 
country declining. Queen, Nefert-ythi. 

1365 Ankh Kheperu Ra, son-in-law of Akhenaten. Not much re- 
corded. 

r 353 Tut Ankh Aten, son-in-law of Akhenaten. Not much recorded. 

1344 Ay and Queen Ty. Descent unknown. Records in tombs of 
officials show a return to former polytheistic religion. 

1332 Hor-em-heb. A general who became king. Abolished worship 
of Sun-disc. Regulated the country, which had become very dis- 
ordered during Akhenaten's time. Two great Pylons at Karnak. 
Queen Nezem-Mut, sister of Nefert-ythi, the wife of Akhenaten. 

DYN. XIX. 

1328 Rameses I. A successful general, married the heiress, and 
founded the new Dyn. XIX. 

1326 Sety I. His son. Restorer of ancient monuments. Great temple 
at Abydos, fine bas-reliefs and list of kings. Temple at Qurneh. 
Began the great Hypostyle Hall at Karnak. Re-conquered 
Southern Syria. Great tomb in Valley of Kings. His sarcophagus 
in Soane Museum, London. Many records and monuments. 

1300 Rameses II. Important reign, very many monuments and 
records. Defeated Hittites at Kadesh. Scenes of battle on all 
temples he built. Poem of Pentaur commemorating victory. Re- 
conquered Palestine, and crushed the Amorites. Built Abu 
Simbel and many other temples, and put his name on all existing 
buildings. Many portrait statues. Considered to be the Pharaoh 
of the oppression of the Israelites. Built Pithom and Raamses. 
On the whole not a strong ruler, though very active. 

1234 Mer-en-Ptah. His son. Restored order and drove out foreign 



chap, v] SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. 15 

invaders. Considered to be the Pharaoh of the exodus of the 

Israelites. 
Later kings of the XIX Dyn. feeble monarchs ; history shows a rapid 
decline from the power and prosperity of the XVIII Dyn. Sety II, 
Amenmeses, Queen Tausert, Siptah, Setnekht. 
DYN. XX. 
1202 Rameses III. Only king of great importance of the Dyn. The 

other nine named Rameses were only nominal rulers under the 

High Priests of Amon. Rameses III built temples at Karnak and 

Medinet Habu. The Harris Papyrus is of this reign. 
DYN. XXI. Theban line. Divided into two contemporary lines of 
Thebes and Tanis. Very complex period. Country declining. Three 
principal kings of Theban line; a Dyn. of Priest-kings. 
1 102 Her Hor. General of the army and High Priest under Rameses 

XIII. Inscription and reliefs in temple of Khonsu,at Karnak, record 

his rise. An important historical record. 
1086 Pinezem I. His grandson. Added to temple of Khonsu. Queen, 

Maat-Ka-Ra. 
1074 Men-Kheper-Ra and his wife, Queen Astemkheb, daughter 

of Pinezem I. Fine applique leather funeral catafalque made for 

her. 
1023 Pinezem II, their son. Last of the Theban priest-kings. 
DYN. XXL Tanis line. Two principal kings of the Tanis line. 
1076 Paseb-Khanu I. Refounded the temple at Tanis, enormous 

wall surrounding it, every brick inscribed with his name. 
1022 Si Amen Mery Amen. Added to the temple at Tanis. 

CYPRUS 

C. 1500 Thothmes III almost certainly invaded Cyprus, many of his 
cartouches found there, the island had probably been visited 
earlier by Egyptians for copper and timber. 

Phoenicians settled in Cyprus. The island became a point 
of contact of the art of all countries. Cypriote and Myce- 
naean conventions influenced each other strongly. Pottery 
2000-1500 (B.M.), incised patterns painted white, and later 
1 500- 1 000, painted designs and ornament in relief. Sculp- 
tured capital, bulls (B.M.). Among the Enkomi finds, a pot 
with octopus, resembling Cretan pots. 

CRETE. (See Appendix IV for method of dating) 

Middle Minoan III = Dyns. XIII-XVII of Egypt (Hyksos dominion). 
Polychrome pottery declining, monochrome superseding, white de- 
signs on dull purple slip, and development of naturalism. Late 
Kamares ware. Enormous knobbed and corded jars with trickle 
ornament. Lily and crocus flowers much used for decoration. Faience, 
nature goddess with snakes, and marble cross. Faience objects, 
shells, fish, flowers, and animals, wild goat and kid, and tablets 



1 6 SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, v 

showing the fronts of houses. Small statuette of Sebek-user showing 
connection with Egypt, probably c. XIII Dyn. Cartouche of Khyan, 
the Hyksos king. 
Knossos. Second palace and fresco paintings. Hagia Triada : First 
Villa. Gournia : Town begun. Zakro : Small trading settlement. 
Inscriptions of Middle Minoan III in definitely linear script, with 
suffixes of objects added as determinatives, called class A. 

Late Minoan I = end of XVII and XVIII Dyns. of Egypt. 

Ornament greatly marine in character, octopus, nautilus, and sea- 
weed realistically treated; also flowers, lily, crocus, and lotus, and 
grasses. 

Knossos. Second palace greatly enlarged. Basement galleries with 
large jars. 

Hagia Triada. Three steatite vases with reliefs — (i) The Chieftain; 
(2) Harvesters ; and (3) Boxer — and much fine work. 

Gournia, Zakro, Palaekastro flourishing. 

Late Minoan 11 = Dyn. XVIII of Egypt. The "Keftiu" ( = Cretans) 
appear on the walls of Egyptian tombs, and dating becomes fixed by 
correspondence with Egyptian dating which is now fixed. 

Knossos. Second great palace completed. Zenith of magnificence and 
glory — the Golden Age. Throne room and antechamber. Fine 
frescoes and painted plaster reliefs. King with lily crown and cup- 
bearer. Fine decorated and painted vases. Black bull's head resem- 
bling Mycenaean gold bull's head. The disc found at Phaestos contain- 
ing 241 hieroglyphic signs, and 61 sign groups, not Minoan script, 
though resembling it, probably Lycian, found with pottery dating 
t8oo or 1600 B.C. 

Painted sarcophagus, Hagia Triada, showing Egyptian influence, 
and double axes, pillars, and birds. 

C. 1400 Sudden catastrophe, perhaps Mycenaean invasion, ended the 
great glory of the Cretan civilization. Palace at Knossos burnt. 

Late Minoan 111 = Dyns. XVIII and XIX of Egypt. 

Palace at Knossos partially re-occupied. Art and prosperity gradually 
declined throughout the island. After c. 11 15 it ceased to have any 
history, though Knossos revived and flourished into the Roman 
period. A great invasion of Dorians ensued, and the population 
became mixed by successive invasions. Crete was known as "the 
mixed land " of Homer. 

BABYLONIA. (Some of the principal kings and events) 

C. 1800 Kassites, a mountain race, invaded Babylonia, ruling for about 

576 years. 
1700 Agun. Kassite king, records the restoration of the images 

carried off by Hittites. (See p. 10.) 
1700 Northern portion of Babylonia asserted its independence, and 

Assyria became a separate kingdom, though not entirely inde- 



chap, v] SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. 17 

pendent of Babylon till about 1450. Constant wars between 
them concerning boundaries. 

1500 A period of literature. 
C. 1400 Burnaburiash. Great Kassite king. He discussed and fixed 
the boundary with Assyria. Bricks recording restoration of 
temples of Shamash (Sun-god) at Larsa. Corresponded with 
Akhenaten of Egypt in Tel-el-Amarna letters. Married an 
Egyptian princess. A long and prosperous reign. Tel-el-Amarna 
letters give important information about the political relations of 
Babylon and Egypt. 

1300 Kassites absorbed into the Semitic population. 

1275 Assyrian king conquered Babylon and ruled for a short time. 

1270 Assyrian king killed. Babylonian power revived, but Assyria 
was henceforth the greater power till the destruction of Nineveh. 

1 150 Murdach Baladin I rebuilt temple of E-Anna at Erech. 

1 1 00 Marduk-Nadin-Akhe. Great boundary stele with imprecations 
against those who move boundaries. 

1 100 Babylon captured by Tiglath Pileser, the Assyrian. 

ASSYRIA. (Early rulers not called kings but Patesis) 

2000 Irishum, one of the Isin Dyn. of Babylonia. 1840 Ishme 
Dagon. 

1820 Shamashi Ramman. 1700 Samsi Ramman. 

1450 Ashur-bel-Nisheshu, King. Tablet with agreement about 
boundary with Babylon, B.M. 

1425 Puzur Ashur. Discussed and fixed boundaries with Burna- 
buriash. 

1300 Shalmaneser I founded Calah ( = Nimroud), recorded in 
inscription of about 885. 

1275 Tukulti Ninib I conquered Babylon. Tablet which he built 
into a wall gives information of early history of Assyria. Babylonian 
power revived, but Assyria was rising; constant struggle between 
them, and power of each rising and falling. 

1 100 Tiglath Pileser conquered Babylon. Built up Assyrian Empire. 
Removed capital from Calah to Ashur. Rebuilt temples and 
restored palaces. Assyrian history a record of war and bloodshed. 

PHOENICIA 

C. 1900 Temporarily subservient to Babylonia. 

1 700-1 600 Coasts of Phoenicia among conquests recorded on Egyptian 
monuments. 1590 Tributary to Egypt. 
1500 A great Nation. Trade thriving with Egypt and Babylonia. 
Phoenicians settled in Cyprus. Beautiful Phoenician gold bowls 
and art objects found there and at Nineveh, etc., showing the 
influence of Egyptian and Babylonian art. 
1300 Egyptian power in Phoenicia lost. Phoenician settlements in 
islands and mainlands of Hellas and extending to Spain. Cadiz 
c 



1 8 SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, v 

founded. Tyre rising and in great power, Sidon declining. Tin 
procured from Cornwall and Scilly Isles. 
1200-900 Climax of Phoenician power, trade nourishing. Cretan, 
Mycenaean, and Aegean civilizations grown weaker. 

HITTITES 

Civilization probably in full vigour in latter part of the second Millennium. 
Hittites were in constant relations with Phoenicia. Their art shows 
Assyrian influence. Rock figures of Nymphi about 1500. 

HEBREWS 

C. 1650 Israelites entered Egypt. 

1530 Thothmes I had conquered all Syria. 

1326 Sety I reconquered all Syria up to the Euphrates. 

1292 Rameses II kept Syria till this time, afterwards lost his hold. 

1230 Mer-en-Ptah regained Southern Syria up to Tyre. It was lost 
by his weak successors. 
C. 1220 Exodus of Israelites from Egypt. 
1 180-1020 Period of the Judges — Samuel the last. 

1000 Jerusalem the capital of all Israel. David, King. 

GREECE 

1500 Bloom of the Aegean and Mycenaean culture and civilization, 
to Treasure from the shaft or circle tombs of Mycenae (Acropolis), 

1300 said to be the burial-place of Agamemnon. Splendid gold 
objects, jewellery, sword-sheaths, vases, engraved gems, lion's 
head, silver ox-head. Domed tombs. Treasury of Atreus at 
Mycenae, column in B.M. Fine vases. Cyclopean walls. Lion 
gateway at Mycenae, earliest known Greek sculpture. Fine seals 
of Mycenaean art, used chiefly for service of the king and court. 
Tiryns. Cyclopean walls and a palace. Mural paintings, in- 
cluding bull and acrobat. Seals. 
Tomb at Orchomenos in Boeotia. 

Advanced monochrome pottery and Mycenaean vases. Vaphio gold 
cups. Fine embossed reliefs found near Sparta — probably Cretan work. 

TROY. {See Appendix VIII) 

Sixth city of Hissarlik. The Homeric Pergamos. Civilization of the 
Mycenaean and Aegean period reflected in the poems of Homer. 

THE GREAT MIGRATIONS IN GREECE 
1100 to 950 B.C. 

The movement started with the invasion of the Thessalians, who 
came from the uplands of Epirus; the tribes they conquered descended 
further south, pushing out the existing tribes, and expelled the Cadmeians 



chap, v] SECOND MILLENNIUM B.C. 19 

out of Thebes. The plain country they conquered took the name of 
Boeotia. 

The Dorians, expelled by the Thessalians, passed southwards and 
invaded the Peloponnesus, led by the Herakleids. They conquered 
Corinth, led by the Herakleid prince Aletes, whose descendants held the 
throne for some centuries. The former Aeolic inhabitants reduced to an 
inferior condition. The great Aegean and Mycenaean civilizations were 
destroyed by the northern tribes, principally Dorians. The Aegeans 
migrated to Asia Minor, founded the Ionic colonies, subsequently be- 
coming merged with the Dorians and known as Ionians. They were later 
the creators of the primitive elements from which the great classical art of 
Greece arose. 

Aeolian, Ionic, and Doric colonies on the coast of Asia Minor and in 
Cyprus. 

C. 1068 The Dorians threatened Athens. Death of Kodrus, last 
King of Athens. Beginning of rule of Archons, chosen from his 
family, assisted by another officer, the Polemarch. 

ETRUSCANS 

I3OO-12OO B.C. 

A branch of the ancient Aegean or Mediterranean stock originally known 
as Tyrseni or Tusci immigrated into Central Italy direct from Asia Minor, 
particularly from Lydia, and in the eleventh century B.C. from Greece, and 
spread over Tuscany (Etruria), and Umbria and the country near Latium, 
and also some localities in Southern Italy. 

CHINA. End of Hia Dyn., Shang Dyn., and beginning of Chow Dyn. 

Shang Dyn., 1766-1122. A semi-historical period. 

1766 End of Hia rulers. Great Shang or Yin Dyn. founded by 
Chong Tang, a benevolent ruler. Name proverbial as prevent- 
ing cruelty to animals. Details of the Shang Dyn. in the 
" Bamboo Books." Greater part, merely a series of names and 
chronology, varies in different books. 

1 182 Won Wang, Duke of Chow, one of the Feudal States. A 
venerated hero, tried to improve the moral standard and welfare 
of his people, and to reform the corruption of his age. Wrote 
" Book of the Changes," one of the oldest products of 
Chinese literature, in which he altered the calendar. Improved 
system of linear writing, number of native commentaries on it. 

1 1 35 Wu Wang, his son, followed him as Duke of Chow. 11 22 
overthrew the then corrupt Shang Dyn., and ruled as first 
Emperor of the Great Chow Dyn. 

Shang Dyn. period may be considered as the beginning of 
Chinese native Art. Bronze bells and sacrificial vessels with 
characteristic ornaments of dragons, birds, etc., and hieroglyphics 
of which we possess rubbings. Bronze weapons. Jade specimens 
published in a Chinese catalogue of a.d. 1176. 



2o SECOND AND FIRST MILLENNIUMS B.C. [chaps, v-vi 

i 115 Chong Wang, son of Wu Wang, extended his grandfather's 
work, the " Book of the Changes," and laid the foundation of a 
government and the state machinery of the Chow Dyn., which 
is expounded in the Chowli, a great book of this period. " South 
pointing " qualities of magnetic needle said to be discovered in 
this reign, and the Ambassador led home by it. Account 
legendary. 

1078 Kang W'ang. Humane ruler and popular. 
1053-1002 Kings becoming less powerful. Central power gradually de- 
clining. 

INDIA. (Vedic Period) 

1500-200 Period of Vedic literature. Earliest chronology of Vedic 
literature conjectural. It comprised three stages (1) the Vedas; 
(2) the Brahmanas; (3) the Sutras. 

C. 1000 Rig Veda, the most important. A collection of 1,017 hymns, 
prayers, and formulas for ritual purposes, containing the earliest 
mythology subdivided into various groups. Manu, one of the 
most important of the heroes, first sacrificer and ancestor of 
mankind. In one of the Brahmanas he appears as the Indian 
Noah. Ruddle drawings in the Kaimur caves probably of this 
Millennium. 



AFGHANISTAN 
1800 Oldest accounts of Afghanistan go back to this date. 



CHAPTER VI 

FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C., AS FAR AS EIGHTH CENTURY B.C., 
WHERE PART II BEGINS 

Egypt. — Hebrews. — Assyria. — Babylonia. — Phoenicia. — Greece. — India. — China. 

EGYPT. (New Kingdom) 

DYN. XXII. Very complex period, owing to system of Regency. 

987-952 Pasebkhanu II. King Solomon married one of his daughters. 
952 Sheshanq (Shishak of the Bible), married to Karamat, 
another daughter of Pasebkhanu II and sister of the wife of 
King Solomon. Firm in maintaining order. Great conquests 
in Syria. Capture of Jerusalem recorded on wall at Karnak. 
Put an end to depredation in tombs. Moved the capital to 
Bubastis, and there began the temple of Bast described by 
Herodotus. 



chap, vi] FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. 21 

930 Usarkon I, son of Karamat and Sheshanq, and nephew of 

Solomon. Building at Bubastis. Records of presents to the 

temples of Egypt. Invaded Judea. 
879 Usarkon II. Great red granite pylon at Bubastis. Luxor 

temple flooded. 

Followed by Sheshanq II and other kings of little importance. 

HEBREWS 
977 David died. 
973 Solomon began building the Temple. He married a daughter 

of King Pasebkhanu II of Egypt, and was brother-in-law of 

Sheshanq, King of Egypt, who married Karamat, another 

daughter of Pasebkhanu II. 
937 Solomon died. After his death Sheshanq captured Jerusalem and 

took away the treasure. 

Usarkon I, son of Karamat and Sheshanq invaded Judea. 

ASSYRIA 
1080 Shamshi Ramman I. Power of Assyria declined temporarily 
till 890. 

890 Tukulti Ninib II. Assyrians again emerged as a conquering 
nation. 

885 Ashur-Nasir-Pal. One of the greatest Assyrian kings. 
Extended the Empire. Moved the government to Calah 
(Nimroud) from Ashur. Built a great palace there. Series of 
great bas-reliefs now in the British Museum. 
Great development of Art. Statues in B.M., and very numerous 
fine objects. Important stele with inscriptions and king's figure 
as high priest, B.M. 

860 Shalmaneser II. Ceaseless wars made him master of Western 
Asia. First contact with Israelites. Jehu, King of Israel, among 
those who sent tribute. Built palace at Calah (Nimroud). 
Bronze bands with reliefs in B.M. Black obelisk with records 
of campaign in Syria, Jehu among the vanquished, B.M. Seated 
basalt figure. Followed by his son, Shamshi Ramman II. 
Protectorate over Babylon. 

BABYLONIA 
History of Babylon now of secondary importance, Assyria the great 
power of Western Asia till the destruction of Nineveh in 607 and rise of 
the new Babylonian Empire. 

PHOENICIA 

King Hiram I sent materials to Solomon for building the Temple. 
846 Carthage founded by Elissa (Dido). 
800 Phoenicia encountered Greek resistance, beginning of decline. 



22 FIRST MILLENNIUM B.C. [chap, vi 

GREECE 

C. 940-850 Homer. Iliad, Odyssey. 

850-800 Hesiod. Works and days, and Theogony. 
C. 820 Legislation of Lycurgus in Sparta founded the stability of 
Sparta. 
Remains of a temple and altar of sacrifice at Orthia (Sparta). Votive 
objects and painted geometric pottery — ivory and bone fibulae, and bronze 
articles of wear. Vases, Group I. {See Appendix XII) 

INDIA. (Brahmanic period) 

C. 800 Beginning of the second stage of the Vedic literature, the 
Brahmanas books dealing with devotion and theological 
treatises subdivided into various parts and groups. 

CHINA. (Chow Dyn.) 

Continued decline of central power. 
827 Battle between Huns and Chinese according to an ancient poem. 



PART II 

EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. TO EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. 
CHAPTER VII 

EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 

Greece. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Rome. — Egypt. — Hebrews. — Hittites. — 
Assyria. — Babylonia. — India. — China. — Japan. 

GREECE 

776 First Olympiad, first exact date given by the Greeks. Games 
held every fourth year when heralds proclaimed universal peace 
among the Hellenes, called the "Truce of God" or "The hand- 
staying peace." The Olympiads formed the mode of calculating 
time. Laconia conquered by Sparta, conquered people divided 
into Perioeci and Helots. 
C. 750 Colonization by Greeks. Sinope, Sybaris, Croton, Tarentum, 
Rhegium, etc. Cumae the most ancient Greek colony in Italy. 
750 Corinth. The reigning sovereign, a descendant of Aletes the 
Herakleid, was deposed by an oligarchic conspiracy ; time of dis- 
order ensued. - 
743 First Messenian War between Messenia and Sparta. Corinth 
and Elis assisted Sparta. Argos, Arcadia, and Sikyon assisted 
Messenia. 
723 Ithome destroyed by Sparta, collapse of Messenian resistance. 
ART. Decorative. Some examples remain of Laconian (Spartan) art. 
A series of carved ivories, ending about 600, showing connection 
with the East. 
700 Treasure of the Ephesian Basis. About 3,000 objects found 
— trinkets, votive objects, female statuettes in columnal form, 
implying a long previous evolution of skilled art. Pseudo scarabs, 
oriental traits resembling the treasure of Enkomi, Cyprus. 
Vases belonging to Group II. (See Appendix XII.) 
LITERATURE 

77 6 -55 Cyclic poets. Songs and legends about Troy which the Iliad 
and Odyssey had left untouched, and the Homeric hymns. 

CYPRUS 

Stone sculpture. Hardly represented before the Assyrian conquests of 
eighth and seventh centuries, when the native kings paid tribute 

2 3 



24 EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, vn 

to Sargon II (722), and later to Esarhaddon (681), and Ashur- 
bani-pal (668), and Cyprus was brought into direct political con- 
tact with the mainland for the first time. 

SICILY (Greek Colonies) 

735 Naxos founded by Greeks from Euboea. 

734 Syracuse founded by Greeks from Corinth. 

729 Leontine, Catana, Megara, Hyblaea, Zankle (Messina). 

PHOENICIA 

Decline of Phoenician trade during this century. 
727 Tyre captured by Assyria. 
701 Coasts ravaged by Assyrians and the Colonies declined. 

ROME 

753 A. U. C. = Anno Urbis Condi tae. Foundation and establishment 

of military and political institutions. 
750 Sabines incorporated with Romans. 
715 Numa Pompilius. Traditional founder of religious institutions. 

EGYPT 

DYN. XXIII. Ethiopian Dominion. 

748 Piankhy I. Important stele in Cairo Museum. 

725 Kashta. Father of Queen Amenardus, Shabaka, and Piankhy II 
(whose date is uncertain). Egypt lost Palestine to Assyria (Sar- 
gon II). 

715 Shabaka. 

707 Shabataka, Son of Shabaka. Queen Amenardus. Pian- 
khy II. 701 Taharqa (the Tirhakah of the Bible). A general 
in Palestine, fought against Sennacherib, subsequently became 
King of Egypt. 

HEBREWS 

742 Ahaz, King of Judah. Became tributary to Assyria. Isaiah de- 
nounced the alliance. 

741 Pekah, King of Israel, besieged Jerusalem. 

731 Hoshea established as king of Israel. Tributary to Assyria. 
He was taken prisoner by Shalmaneser IV (between 727 and 722) 
during an intrigue with Egypt. 

727 Hezekiah. Religious and social reforms. 

722 Israel absorbed into Assyria. 

701 Egypt, under Taharqa, aided the Jews against Assyria and 
Sennacherib. 

HITTITES 

End of the Syrian portion of the Hittite kingdom. Captured by 
Sargon II of Assyria. 



chap, vii] EIGHTH CENTURY B.C. 25 



ASSYRIA 

783 Shalmaneser III. 

745 TiglathPileser III. Powerful king. Pul of the Bible. Rebuilt 

the Empire. Subdued Babylon and Syria. Palace at Nimroud. 

Wall reliefs in B.M. and inscriptions. 

727 Shalmaneser IV. Took Hoshea prisoner for intriguing with 
Egypt. 

722 Sargon II. Palace at Khorsabad. Colossal human-headed 
bulls and wall reliefs, B.M. His rule extended to Cyprus. Royal 
library relief of Gilgames, the mythical hero, etc. 

705 Sennacherib. Invaded Judah. Records on clay cylinders, B.M., 

and many important historical cylinders, B.M. Palace at Nineveh 

and library. Wall bas-relief B.M., also wall reliefs of siege of 

Lakish (Syria). Gold ornaments. 

ASSYRIAN ART most flourishing from ninth to end of seventh century. 

BABYLONIA 

745 Nabu-nasir. Literary activity. Tablets and chronicles of 

events, B.M. 
731 Babylonia conquered by Tiglath Pileser III. 

728 End of Old Babylonian Empire, incorporated with Assyria. 

INDIA 

Development of Philosophy under the Brahminical system. Second 
period of Vedic literature, the Brahmanas theological treatises, discussing 
sacrificial ceremonies, etc. (800 to 500). 

CHINA. (Chow Dyn.) 

781 Yu-wang-King. Central power declining as feudal princes 
gained independence. Historic document recording eclipse of 
the sun, 29th August 775, and warnings of coming downfall of 
the dynasty. 

770 Ping-wang. Princes gaining power. 

719 Huan-hang. Constant warfare between central power and 
feudal states. 

700 China consisted of a number of feudal states held by nobles 
owing allegiance to a central king at head of all. 

JAPAN 
Not yet emerged from period of myth. 



26 SE VENTH CENTUR Y B. C. [chap, viii 




CHAPTER VIII 

SEVENTH CENTURY B.C. 

Greece. — Lydia. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Phrygia. — Rome. — Egypt. — Cyprus. — 
Hebrews. — Assyria. — Babylonia. — Persia. — India. — China. — Japan. 

GREECE 

In the seventh century nearly all the Greek states went through a period 
of disorder and strife. Rise of Tyrants and Oligarchies. 

676 Sikyon, under the Orthagoridae, threw off the Dorian nobles and 

adopted the one Tyrant in place of the Oligarchy. 
675 Pheidon, of Argos, struggled to extend his supremacy over the 

Peloponnesus (his date disputed). 
675 Byzantium founded by the Megareans. 
669 Struggle between Argos and Sparta. 
C. 657 Cypselus overthrew the Bacchiadae of the Herakleidae stock and 

took the rule in Corinth. Reigned as Tyrant till 625. 
C. 650 Attic history becomes clear and continuous. Athens governed by 
nine Archons, the Council of the Areopagus. 
650 Naukratis founded by Greeks in Egypt. Intercourse estab- 
lished between Greece and Egypt. 
645 Second Messenian War. Messenian vassals rising against 

Sparta. Sparta victorious and gained Southern Peloponnesus. 
625 Periander. Succeeded his father Cypselus as Tyrant of 
Corinth. Conquered Epidauros and Aegina. Corinth at her 
zenith. 
610-600. Athens at war with Megara. Solon headed an expedition. 

ART. Archaic period. Works of sculpture executed which anticipated 
the actual rise and continuous rapid growth of the art. Rhoecus, Theo- 
dorus, Teleclus. Samian sculptors said to have modelled in clay 
before 663, but probably of a later date (time of Croesus, c. 568). Smiles 
mentioned as connected with them. Archaic terra-cottas in Greece and 
Asia Minor, B.M. 

Some of the most Important Works of Art and Buildings 

Primitive Stone columnar female figure at Delos (recalling primi- 
tive wooden type) dedicated by Nicandra of Naxos (to Artemis?), N.M.A. 

Cedar Chest of Cypselus described by Pausanias. Scenes inlaid 
with gold and ivory. 

Temple of Hera at Olympia. The earliest was in wood and much 
terra-cotta decoration. Wooden columns gradually replaced by the stone 
columns still extant. Earliest extant temple on Greek soil. Head of 
Hera, Archaic type. O.M. 

Bronze Bands from temple of Hera, Olympia, repousse and en- 
graved. Oriental motives, i.e., the winged Artemis, etc., late seventh or 
early sixth century, N.M.A. 



chap, vm] SE VENTH CENTUR Y B.C. 27 

Temple of Assos in the Troad, Asia Minor. 

Temple at Corinth. Casa di Sassone, Metapontum. Graves of 
Camiros, Rhodes, containing metal work, ivories, amulets, and scarabs of 
Egyptian type. Figurines. Winged goddesses and Sphinx, B.M. 

VASES. Group III. (See Appendix XII.) 

LITERATURE. Rise of Elegiac and Iambic poetry. 



690 Callinus. 

675 Tyrtaeus. 

670 Archilaeus. 

660 Alcman. 



660 Simonidesof Amorgas. 

620 Mimnermus. 

620 Stesichorus (Sicily). 

610 Sappho. Poetess. 



Errinna, minor poetess. 
610 Alcaeus. 
600 Arion. 



LYDIA 

685 Gyges usurped the throne. Became a vassal of Ashur-bani-pal. 

660 Gyges killed in battle. Sardis taken by Cimmerians. Ardys suc- 
ceeded. Freed the country from Cimmerians and attacked the 
Greeks. 

622 Sadyattes, son of Ardys. Continued attacks on Greeks. 

610 Alyattes, grandson of Ardys. Continued to attack Greek cities, 
particularly Miletus. 

SICILY 

690 Gelon founded. 

648 Himera founded. 

650 Selinus founded. Earliest Metopes, Perseus and Medusa. 

to Temple, known as Temple C, end of seventh or beginning of sixth 

628 century. 

Early Temple of Apollo, Syracuse. 

PHOENICIA 

680-678 Sidon besieged by Assyria. 

636 Last Assyrian governor of Phoenicia. 

Treasure of Praeneste, Phoenician work of the seventh century (Rome), 
and Phoenician bowl (New York). 

PHRYGIA 
670 Downfall of the Phrygian Monarchy and suicide of King Midas. 
The name Midas given to many Phrygian kings. The early great 
legendary King Midas said to be the son of the mother goddess 
Cybele, and her first priest. 

ROME 

No contemporary history of the kings. Legendary accounts. 
672 Tullus Hostilius, King. Roman and Alban war. New Senate 

house built. 
670 Ancus Marcius, King. War with Latins. Pons Sublicius built. 

Ostia founded. 
616 Tarquinius Priscus, King. Building activity. Temple of Jupiter 

on the Capitol. Treaty with the Latins. 



28 SE VENTH CENTUR Y B. C. [chap, viii 

700 Etruscan influence very strong. Etruscan Art flourished in central 
to Italy, Latium, and Rome. A mixture of Greek, Assyrian, and Asiatic 
200 elements. Etruscan architecture, painted tombs, and early orna- 
ment. Corneto and Polledrara, etc. 

EGYPT 
DYN. XXV. Ethiopian. 

693 Taharqa. Taken captive by Assyrians who invaded Egypt. 
664 Tanut Amen. Recovered Egypt, subsequently driven back to 

Ethiopia. Name on Assyrian inscription. 
672 Saite Dominion. Nekau I. Lower Egypt. 
DYN. XXVI. 
666 Psammetichus I. Re-united Egypt. Assisted by Greeks against 

Assyrians. 650 Naukratis founded by Greeks. Revival of Art. 

Increased trade and commerce. Trade opened with Greece. 
610 Nekau II. Encouraged art. Invited Greeks to settle. Took 

Jerusalem. 605 Vanquished in Syria by Nebuchadnezzar, who 

threatened to invade Egypt. 

CYPRUS 

Opening of Treaty ports by Psammetichus and his successors to Greek 
adventurers brought Cyprus within the full range of the influence 
of Egyptian Art and modified the style. Figures resemble the School of 
Naukratis. 

HEBREWS 

629 Jeremiah began his prophetic career. 

610 Josiah, King of Judah, killed at Megiddo fighting Nekau. 

604 Judah, an Egyptian province. 

603 Daniel prophesying at Babylon. 

ASSYRIA 

681 Esarhaddon. Wars with Phoenicia, Cilicia, Edom, Medes, and 
Arabs. Conquest of Lower Egypt. Important cylinder records and 
tablets (B.M.). Bas-relief cut in rock in Syria (cast B.M.). 

668 Ashur-bani-pal = Sardanapalus. Expelled Ethiopians from Egypt 
and established his supremacy for a time. Best period of art. Wall 
reliefs, battle scenes, great lion hunt, etc., B.M. Thousands of 
tablets added to library at Kouyunjik. Creation tablets and Deluge 
tablets, copies of older ones (seep. 10). Many in B.M. Ten-sided 
cylinder with principal events. Gyges, King of Lydia, killed during 
a revolt. 

626 Assyrian power declining at death of Ashur-bani-pal. 

610 Fall of Nineveh. End of Assyrian Empire, divided among Medes 
and Babylonians. 

BABYLONIA. (Rising again) 

625 New Babylonian Empire under Nabopolassar, an Assyrian 
general. 



chaps, vm-ix] SEVENTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES B.C. 29 

605 Nebuchadnezzar II. Great builder and restorer of temples, 
to Important series of brick inscriptions with records of his time, and 
562 cylinder, B.M. 

PERSIA. (Rise of) 

700-600 Scythian Empire founded. 607 Scythians conquered Assyria. 

INDIA 

C. 650 History of Northern India begins, as recorded in the sacred 
books of Brahmins, Buddhists, and Jains, from which also our 
knowledge of earlier events is derived. India a civilized land. 
600 Sisunaga Dyn. founded. 

C. 600 Samhita. Canonical form of Rig- Veda. Brahmanas and Upani- 
shads mainly concerned with the nature of the soul world. 
Art of Writing introduced probably about 600. 

CHINA. (Chow Dyn.) 

700-600 Century of the five leaders. Internal war for leadership 685-591. 

Possessed a written language. Used bamboo tablets and stylus. 
689 Huns, Tartar barbarians, made inroads. 
604 Lao-Tzuborn. Author of the religious system called Taoism = 

Tao, " the way." 

JAPAN. (Semi-mythical Period) 

660 Gimmu Tenno. Established his capital in Yamato. Japanese 
historians date present era from him as first Mikado, and first 
mortal ruler. A semi-divine legendary being, fifth ruler in descent 
from the sun. No genuine history till 1,000 years later, but much 
is learnt of the ancient Japanese from the early legends and traditions. 
Oldest bronze castings. Bronze mirrors and the Ceramic industry 
traditional to the age of the gods. 



CHAPTER IX 

SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 

Greece. — Lydia. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Phoenicia. — Rome and Etruscans. — Egypt. — 
Hit tites. — Babylonia. — Persia. — Hebrews. — India. — China. 

GREECE 
595 First sacred war instigated by Solon to protect pilgrims to the 

shrine of Apollo at Delphi. 
594 Solon elected Archon in Athens. Constitutional reforms and 

laws. He travelled in Cyprus, Asia Minor, and Egypt. Died 558. 
585 Misrule of Periander in Corinth caused downfall of rule of Tyrants 

there. 
582 Psammetichus, his nephew, held the sceptre for a year. Was 

murdered. 



3 o SIXTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, ix 

560 Rise of Peisistratus in Athens. Supported the State religion. 
Games instituted at the Panathenaic festival. Gathered many literary 
men at his court. Was exiled about 556. 

560 Alliance between Sparta and Tegea. 

559 Ionia, Lydia, and Greek cities of Asia conquered by Cyrus — Poly- 
crates of Samos remained independent and made alliance with 
Amasis of Egypt. 539 Return of Peisistratus. 

527 Hippias and Hipparchus, sons of Peisistratus, ruled together at 
Athens. 

514 Harmodius and Aristogeiton conspired against them. Hip- 
parchus was killed. Hippias consequently made some changes in 
mode of government. 

511 Revolt headed by Cleisthenes, Hippias exiled. End of the 
Tyrants. Democracy and constitution of Cleisthenes and reform of 
code of Solon. 
Age of the seven wise men, Solon, Periander, Pittacus, Chilo, Thales, 

Cleobulus, Bias. 

ART. Sculpture archaic and rising. Zenith of Archaic Art second 

half of century. Much known only from literary sources. School of 

Sculpture arose at Naxos about the time the Ionians, under the Tyrant 

Lygdamus, extended their dominion over Naxos, Paros, Andros, Chios, 

Samos, and Rhodes. Terra-cottas in B.M. 

Sculptors. (Known by literary evidence) 
C. 580 Dipoenus and Scyllis. Cretans. Settled in Sicyon, earliest 
Peloponnesian sculptors of whom we have any definite know- 
ledge. Said to be followers of the legendary Cretan sculptor, 
Daedalus. They worked chiefly in wood and ivory. Chrys- 
elephantine statues rose from their school. 
Tectaeus and Angelion. Pupils of Dipoenus and Scyllis. 
Clearchus. Pupil of Daedalus. Master of Pythagoras. 
Corinthian School, Amyclaeus, Chionis, Diyllus. 
School in Sparta. Foundation attributed to Dipoenus and Scyllis. 
Works by Dontas, Doryclidas, Hegylus, and Theocles shown 

at Olympia in time of Pausanias. Wood, ivory, and gold. 
An Apollo at Delos in the early temple. 
Chirisophus. A Cretan. Gilt statue of Apollo at Tegea. 
Endoeus mentioned as companion of Daedalus. Ivory statue of Athena 
at Tegea. Seated Athena, A.M. Probably the statue mentioned by 
Pausanias. 
Early in Artist family of island of Chios, Mikkiades, his son Archer- 
century mus, and his sons Bupalus and Athenis. Archermus 
said to have first represented Nike with wings — the Delos Nike, 
N.M.A. 
568 Bathycles. Samian School probably working at Ephesus and 
Magnesia in time of Croesus. Pillar statue of Apollo in form of 
a bronze column with head and feet. Throne of Apollo. 
Canachus of Sicyon. Bronze Apollo of Branchidae. 



CHAP. IX] 



SIXTH CENTUR Y B. C. 



3i 



C. 520 Autilides and Chrysothemis of Argos recorded as sculptors 
of victorious athletes at Olympia. 

Ageladas of Argos. Reputed master of Myron, Polyclitus, 
and Phidias. 

Anterior. Bronze statues of Harmodius and Aristogeiton, the 
conspirators. Xerxes carried them away. Alexander restored 
them. 

Criteus and Nesiotes. Marble group of Harmodius and 
Aristogeiton made in place of those Xerxes took away. 

Some of the most important works of sculpture 
Early in Stone pediments on Acropolis, Athens, of Hercules and 
century Hydra, A.M. 

Stone sculptures of Hercules and Triton and Typhon from 

early temple of Athena on Acropolis known as Hecatom- 

pedon, A.M. 
C. 550 Giantomachy of the Hecatompedon. Early type of Athena 

head, A.M. 

Archaic pillar-statue from temple of Hera, Samos. Drapery 

attempted. Dedicated by Charamyes. L. 

Calf Bearer of Acropolis, A.M. 
Early ( Series of nude male figures, so-called Apollos, from Orcho- 
and f menos, Ptous, Tegea, Tenea, Thera, and Milos, N.M.A. 

onwards [and M. 

Archaic statues of Kleobis and Biton at Delphi. Argive 

School showing Egyptian influence. 

Sphinx of Naxos at Delphi, D.M. 

Sphinx from Spata. 

Head of Hera at Olympia (or late seventh century). Archaic 

type, O.M. 

Branchidae figures, B.M. 

Harpy. Tomb from Lycia, B.M. 

Pausanias states the earliest wooden statues of victorious 

athletes were set up at Olympia c. 544 and 536. 

Stone Sculpture at Delphi of treasuries of Gela, Megara, and 

Sicyon, D.M. 
Late Stone Pediments and frieze from treasury of the 

Cnidians, Delphi, D.M. 
Late 6th /"Series of female figures on Acropolis, Athens. Attic School, 
and \ with drapery of the period, A.M. 

Early 5th [ 

Little bronze figures early in century. 

Terra-cotta sarcophagus from Clazomene (Asia Minor), finely 

painted, chariots, races, combats, B.M. Example of early Ionian 

art. 

Some Important Buildings 

Sanctuary of Artemis, Orthia. Stone, archaic Doric, in honour of the 

goddess of child-birth, superseding an old brick and wood temple. 



32 SIXTH CENTUR Y B. C. [chap, ix 

Early temple of Aphaia in Aegina. 

Temple of Zeus, Olympia, commenced by Peisistratus. 

Temple of Poseidon, Paestum. 

Temple of Artemis, Ephesus, on substructure of two earlier temples. 

Croesus contributed some columns. 
548 Temple of Apollo, Delphi, burnt. Rebuilt by Spintharos, 530- 

5J4- 
Vases. Groups III, IV, and V. {See Appendix XII.) 

LITERATURE 

B. D. 

Susarion fl: 580 

Aesopus fl: c. 570 

Simonides (of 

Cos) 556 

Pythagoras 540 510 



B. D. 

Thespis (first tragedy) 536 
Aeschylus 525 456 

Pindar 522 442 

Anacreon A: 521 

Telesella, poetess 510 



LYDIA 

568 Croesus, son of Alyattes. Ephesus and Miletus and many of the 
Ionic and Asiatic cities fell into his hands. Great trade route between 
Asia and the West in his power. Became immensely wealthy. Great 
admirer and patron of Greek art. Sent gifts to Apollo at Delphi 
and to Branchidae, near Miletus, and some columns to temple at 
Ephesus, B.M. 

549 He brought the Hittite rule to a close. 

Constant war with Cyprus. Allied with Narbonidus of Babylon 
and Amasis of Egypt. 

546 Fall of Croesus. Sardis captured. Lydia absorbed into the Persian 
Empire. 

CYPRUS 

Conquered by Egypt under Amasis. Native style of sculpture affected 
by Hellenic canons of art. Archaic terra-cottas, 600-500, B.M. 

SICILY 

563 Acragas (Girgenti) founded by Dorians. Temple of Zeus. 
Temples at Selinus continued, known as D and G. 

PHOENICIA 

532 Became a Persian province. 
530 Carthage became independent. 

Fine specimens of Phoenician bronze and silver work, and jewellery. 

ROME AND THE ETRUSCANS 

No contemporary history of the kings. Legendary except Servius 
Tullius. Etruscans at the height of their power. 



chap, ix] SIXTH CENTURY B.C. 33 

578 Servius Tullius. Rome consolidated. Rise of patrician and 
plebeian dissensions. Etruscans occupy Corsica. 

534 Tarquinius Superbus. 525 Etruscans attacked Cumae unsuc- 
cessfully. 

509 End of the Kings. Republic with two Consuls. 

507 Etruscan Invasion. Lars Porsena. Horatius Codes. Capitol 

dedicated to Jupiter. 
505 Rome entered the Latin league. About 500, Etruscans conquered 

Sardinia. 
Towards the end of this century and the beginning of the next Greek 
influence was diffused in Rome by Greek traders, and many Greek gods 
were introduced. Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Demeter, Kore, Hermes, 
Dionysus, and the Sibylline Books. The fine Etruscan tombs at 
Cervetri, Sarcophagus, B.M. Good gold jewellery. 

EGYPT 
DYN. XXVI. 

594 Psammetichus II. Solon said to have visited Egypt. 
589 Uah-ab-Ra, also called Apries. Palace at Memphis discovered by 

Petrie 1908. Hophra of the Bible. Jeremiah at Daphne in Egypt. 
564 Amasis. Encouraged Greek commerce and art. Took Cyprus. 

Alliance with Polycrates of Samos. Power of Persia advancing. 

Alliance with Greeks, Lydians, and Babylonians to check it. 
DYN. XXVII. 
525 Persian rule under Cambyses. Scoffed at Egyptian religion, and 

killed the Apis Bull. 
521 Darius. Re-organized government. Tried to restore Egyptian 

religion and to find a new Apis Bull. Taxes heavy. 

510 Kore Kosmos. Earliest Hermetic literature. (See Appen- 
dix XIV.) 

HITTITES 

549 Croesus, King of Lydia, brought the Hittite rule to a complete 
close. 

BABYLONIA 

597 Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem. Inscriptions give details 
of building and prayers to Merodach. 

555 Nabonidus. Usurper. Great builder and restorer of temples. 
Many inscriptions and important seals and cylinders, B.M. He 
found monuments of Khammurabi (c. 2200 B.C.) and inscriptions of 
Sargon I, etc. (c. 3000 B.C.) during his excavations and antiquarian 
researches, and his early Babylonian chronology has been accepted 
by many archaeologists. 

549 Babylonians and Medes at war. 

538 Babylon fell, and Babylonia became a Persian province under Cyrus.—- 

PERSIA 
C. 660-583 Zoroaster. The prophet of Iran (Zarathushtra). Diversity of 
opinions regarding his date; prevailing argument now that the era 

D 



34 SIXTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, ix 

of his teaching was some time during the sixth century. He was 
chief of the Magi, a priestly tribe of Media already existing. 

591 The Avesta. Written by Gamasp from the teaching of Zoroaster. 
Zoroastrian chronology goes back to c. 9630 b.c. as the time of the 
primary ideas of Creation. Mithraism, a phase of Zoroastrianism. 
The Parsees of to-day are followers of Zoroaster. 

584 Astyages, King of Media. 

559 Cyrus revolted against Medes of the Babylonian monarchy. Con- 
quered Lydia, became King of Persia, and subdued Asia and the 
Greek islands (except Samos), and became Master of the East. 

525 Cambyses. Conquered Egypt (Amasis). Revolt of Cyprus. 

521 Darius founded Persian Dyn. General revolt, 519-15. Empire 
was re-conquered. Expedition against Scythia and Indus. Bas- 
reliefs on rock at Behistun show the king and prisoners, and the 
god Ahura Mazda hovering above. Splendid palace at Persepolis, 
fine bas-reliefs. Hall of 100 columns with carved bull capitals (after- 
wards burnt by Alexander the Great). Palace at Susa. Bull 
capitals, lion and archer friezes of coloured enamelled tiles, L. 

HEBREWS 

597 Jerusalem destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar. Inhabitants captive in 

Babylon. 
538 First return of the exiles after Cyrus conquered Babylon. 
C. 516 Temple rebuilding completed. 

INDIA 

C. 560 Buddha born. Bimbisara, fifth monarch of Magadha (Sisunaga 
Exact Dyn.), the friend and patron of Buddha. Buddhism gained little 
date ground at first. Mahavira, founder of Jainism, a little later 
disputed than Buddha. 

521 Darius sought to extend his power over India. Annexed the 
provinces west of the Indus. 

CHINA. (Chow Dyn.) 

551 Confucius born. Maybe regarded as the founder of Chinese 
literature. The five classics, his books of history and teaching. 
History of literature begins with the sixth century B.C., names of 
authors from this period to 200 B.C., and of the works on a variety 
of subjects attributed to them, would fill a long list. Treatise on 
" The Art of War," by Sun Tzu. 



chap, x] FIFTH CENTURY B.C. 35 



CHAPTER X 

FIFTH CENTURY B.C. 

Greece. — Cyprus. — Sicily. — Persia. — Egypt. — Carthage and Phoenicia. — Hebrews. — 
Rome. — India. — China. 

GREECE 

499 Beginning of the struggle with Persia. 

493 First Persian expedition under Darius. His fleet destroyed by 

a hurricane. 
490 Second Persian expedition under Darius. He destroyed Ionia, 

Naxos, and Eretreia. Athens at war with Aegina. 
490 Marathon. Greek victory under Miltiades. Athens under the rule 

of Themistocles and Aristides. Differences arose between 

them. Aristides was ostracised. Fleet built. Piraeus became 

a trading centre. Growth of power of Athens. 
481 Great congress to decide means of defence against Persians. Aegina 

reconciled to Athens. 
480 Third Persian invasion under Xerxes. Thermopylae. Athenian 

and Persian fleets in conflict. Xerxes advanced to Athens. Battle 

of Salamis and victory of Athenian fleet saved Athens. Retreat 

of Xerxes. 
479 Greek victories of Plataea and Mycale. Persian army destroyed. 

Walls round Athens finished, and a stronger one built round the 

Piraeus. Greek siege of Byzantium, an important Persian fortress. 

Treachery of Pausanias, the Greek General, involving Themistocles, 

who was disgraced and subsequently ostracised. 
478 Hegemony of Greece transferred to Athens. Foundation of Hellenic 

Symmachia. 
477 Confederacy of Delos to put the Persians out of the Aegean 

Sea. Deputies met at Temple of Apollo and deposited treasure 

there. 
468 Cimon, son of Miltiades, became leader of the party of the 

nobles in Athens after the death of Aristides. Pericles, leader of 

the opposite party. 
468 Mycenae and Tiryns destroyed by the Argives. 
462 Reform of Pericles and beginning of his predominance, and his 

attack on the power of the Areopagus. 
461 Cimon ostracised. 
458 Athens at war with Corinth and Aegina, who had formed an 

alliance when Athens sent a fleet to Egypt. Athens victorious, and 

her power extended. 
454 Athenian defeat at Memphis in Egypt by Artaxerxes. 
451 Truce between Athens and Sparta for five years. 
449 Cimon returned to Athens, led campaign against the Phoenician 



36 



FIFTH CENTUR Y B. C. 



[chap. 



445 



445 
443 



440 
43i 



cities of Cyprus allied to the Persians. He died during the 
campaign. 

Thirty years' peace agreed to with Sparta, Athens recognizing the 
Hegemony of Sparta in the Peloponnesus, Sparta recognizing the 
confederacy of Delos. 

End of Persian war. Athens at her zenith under Pericles. 
Thucydides opposed Pericles, was ostracised, leaving Pericles 
supreme. Attempted extension of power in all directions and taxa- 
tion of all parts of the Delian league for Athenian purposes. 
Revolt and subjugation of Samos and surrender of Byzantium. 
Peloponnesian War broke out between Athens and Sparta 
owing to a quarrel between Corinth and Corcyra, in which Athens 
assisted Corcyra. Spartans under Archidamus invaded Attica. 
Athenians invaded the Megarid annually till 424. 430 Second 
invasion of Attica by Peloponnesians. Great plague in Athens. 
Unpopularity of Pericles, who died in 429. 

End of first stage of Peloponnesian War, results almost negative. 
Truce till 416. Alcibiades in power in Athens. 
Expedition under Alcibiades and Nicias to assist the people of 
Segesta in Sicily against their neighbours, the people of Selinus. 
Greek defeat at Syracuse in the great battle in the harbour. 
Revolt of Chios, Lesbos, Miletus. Decline of Athenian power 
beginning. 

Ly sander of Sparta surprised and destroyed the Athenian fleet 

at Aegospotami. Athens surrendered and became a subject ally of 

Sparta. Her long walls and the fortifications of Piraeus destroyed. 

End of Peloponnesian War. Sparta supreme in Greece. 

Battle of Cunaxa in Mesopotamia — " Retreat of the Ten Thousand." 

ART. Rapid advance of art and literature. Sculpture rose to its 

zenith and was never excelled in loftiness of ideal and perfection of execution. 

The Archaic was still holding; and transition in the early part of the 

century led to the " Golden Age " after the end of the Persian War. 



421 
4i5 

413 
4i3 

405 



401 



Gitiades (Spartan 

School). 

Callon] ... 

Onatas A ^ net f n 
c •, School. 

Smiles J 

Pythagoras. 

Glaucias. 

Aristocles. 

Ptolichus. 

Hegias (Attic), re- 



Sculptors 

ported first master 
of Phidias. 

Myron. 

Lycius, his son. 

Calamis. 

Praxias, pupil of Ca- 
lamis. 

Ageladas (Argos) re- 
ported second mas- 
ter of Phidias. 

Phidias. 



Paeonius. 

Callimachus. 

Anaxagoras. 

Polyclitus. 

Patrocles, his brother. 

Cresilas. 

Phradmon. 

Alcamenes. 

Strongylion. 



A large number of Archaic works and others, now lost, are mentioned 
by Pausanias, who was in Greece in the second century a.d. 

An immense number of single figures were executed, many of them 



CHAP. X] 



FIFTH CENTUR Y B. C. 



37 



among the most beautiful Greece ever produced— ^gods, goddesses, Amazons, 
and athletes. The most beautiful Attic funerary steles, high and low 
relief and votive reliefs. 



Some of the most 

Bronze Charioteer (Delphi). D.M. 

Ludovisi Throne. N.M.R. 

Bronze Spinario. C.M.R. 

Apollo (Choiseul Gouffier) culmina- 
tion of the sixth century Apollo 
series. B.M. 

Series of Athletes. 

Series of Amazons. 

Doryphorus of Polyclitus (canon of 
art). 

Aristion Stele. N.M.A. 

Mourning Athena relief. A.M. 

Triptolemus relief (Eleusis). N.M.A. 

Sculptures of Treasury of Sicyon 
(Delphi). D.M. 

Sculptures of Treasury of Athenians 
(Delphi). D.M. 

Sculptures of Temple of Zeus 
(Olympia). O.M. 

Nike of Paeonius. O.M. 



important works 

Great Buildings in Athens subse- 
quent to destruction by the Per- 
sians in 480. 

Parthenon (Doric) and Sculptures. 
(Architects, Ictinus and Calli- 
crates.) 

Erechtheum (Acropolis) Ionic. 

Nike Temple and Sculptures (Acro- 
polis) Ionic. 

Propylaea (Acropolis) Doric. 

Theseum (Athens). Doric. 

Sculpture of Nereid Monument 
(Lycia). B.M. 

Tomb at Trysa and Sculptures (Ly- 
cia). 

Temple of Apollo and Sculptures at 
Bassae. 

Telesterion, Hall of Mysteries, 
Eleusis. 



PAINTING (see Appendix XIII). No first-rate examples exist, 
knowledge (derived from literary sources, Pliny the most important. 



Our 



Aglaphon. 
Polygnotus, his son. 
Micon. 



Artists 

Panaenus (brother of 

Phidias). 
Apollodorus. 



Zeuxis. 

Timanthes. 

Parrhasius. 



VASES. Groups IV, V, VI, and VII. (See Appendix XII.) 
LITERATURE rose rapidly to perfection. 



E. 



D. 



Aeschylus 

Pindar 

Sophocles 

Euripides 

Herodotus 

Protagoras 



45 6 

44? 

495 404 
480 406 
481 
481 



411 



Bacchylides fl. 470 



D. 



480 4II 



Antiphon 
Archilochus 
Polycrates 
Thucydides 
Democritus 
Lysias 

Anaxagoras (in Athens 
462) 



47i 
460 

458 



400 



378 



B. 



D. 



Cratinus 450 423 

Aristophanes 448 r.380 
Xenophon c. 431 354 
Plato c. 428 347 

Diogenes 412 323 
Eupolis of Elis 



CYPRUS 



During the Persian aggression the course of events in the island excluded 
Cyprus from close and continuous intercourse with the new and progressive 
centres of Greek art. Terra-cottas in B.M. 



38 FIFTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, x 

SICILY 
488 Theron, descendant of Telemachus, Tyrant of Acragas. 

485 Gelon, Tyrant of Syracuse. 

480 Carthaginians invaded Sicily, conquered by Theron and Gelon at 
Himera. Victory of Gelon same day as Salamis. 

478 Hiero, brother of Gelon, Tyrant of Syracuse, defeated Etruscans at 
Cumae. Great Greeks at his court, Aeschylus, Pindar, Simonides, 
Bacchylides, etc. 

466 Thrasybulus banished from Syracuse. Democracy established. 
Supremacy of the city extended. 

453 Syracuse predominant in Sicily. 

416 Quarrels between the Dorian State of Selinus and the barbarian city 
of Segesta, the latter asked for aid of the Greeks, who came, led by 
Alcibiades and Nicias. 

413 Battle of the Harbour of Syracuse. Greeks defeated. 

409 Selinus destroyed by Carthaginians called in by Segesta. Acragas 
( = Girgenti) also taken by Carthaginians. 

400 Dionysius I, Tyrant of Syracuse, made peace with Carthage. 
Destroyed Naxos. Fortifications of Euryalus made to resist Cartha- 
ginians. 
Temples. 480-450. At Girgenti; Concord, Juno, and Zeus. At 

Selinus; Temple E 4 Metopes (figure of Hera, finest Greek art). At 

Segesta, second half of century, temple unfinished. 
Empedocles of Acragas flourished about 444 b.c. 

PERSIA 

499 Revolt of Asiatic Greece began. Cyprus submitted to Persia. 
490 Persians invaded Greece. 485 Xerxes, son of Darius, King. 
Great palace and reliefs. 

486 Egypt revolted. 484 Was subdued. 

480 Xerxes invaded Greece, Thermopylae, Salamis. Elaborate great 
palace at Persepolis. Hypostyle Hall, fine bull-capitals, good bas- 
reliefs with invocations to Ahura Mazda. Propylaea, winged human- 
headed bulls. Hanging draperies. 

479 Persians expelled from Greece. 

464 Artaxerxes I. 460 Second Egyptian revolt, aided by Athenians. 

Great palace, Susa. 
424 Xerxes II murdered by his brother Sogdianus same year. 

423 Darius II. 
412 Sparta recognized Persian rule in Asia Minor. 
405 Egypt declared its independence. 
404 Artaxerxes II. Revolt of his younger brother Cyrus, aided by 

Greeks. 401 Cyrus defeated at Cunaxa and slain. " Retreat of the 

Ten Thousand." 
Persian Art, influenced by Assyria and Greece, grew very rapidly, and 
ceased when the Empire fell in the fourth century. Art of Mesopotamia 
survived and became basis of later art of Persia. Tombs of Cyrus, Darius, 



chap, x] FIFTH CENTUR Y B. C 39 . 

and Xerxes and others at Necropolis of Naksh-i-Rustan ; fine rock bas-. 
reliefs. 

Towers of Silence, generally used for the disposal of the dead, 
because the Avesta forbade burning the bodies as a pollution of fire, the. 
symbol of the deity, and also forbade burial as a pollution of earth, the 
source of all life. On the Towers of Silence bodies were devoured by birds 
of prey. Still used by Parsees. 

EGYPT (Under Persian rule.) 

XXVII DYN. Persian. 

485 Xerxes quelled revolt. His name on Serapeum at Saqqara. 

465 Artaxerxes. Another revolt. War for six years. Egypt submitted. 

Herodotus in Egypt, c. 455. 
430 Great plague appeared in Ethiopia, spread all over Egypt. 
424 Xerxes II. Followed by Sogdianus. Egypt tranquil. 

404 Egypt regained independence, driving out Persians under Darius II, 
and XXVIII Dyn. commenced under Amyrtaeos, also called Amen- 
erdais, and lasted six years. 

CARTHAGE AND PHOENICIA 

496 Phoenician soldiers assisted Persians against Ionians. 

480 Carthaginians invaded Sicily, defeated at Himera. 

410 Hannibal and Hamilcar destroyed Acragas = Girgenti. - 

405 Treaty between Carthage and Syracuse. 
405 Phoenicians assisted Athens against Sparta. 

HEBREWS 

Judea ruled by Persian Satraps. 

Ezra sent by Artaxerxes to reform Jerusalem, reconstruction of 
community, and walls rebuilt. 
445 Nehemiah. 415 On his death, rule passed to High Priests under 
Persians. 

ROME 

499 Foundation of Temple of Saturn in the Forum. 

498 Battle of Lake Regillus. Castor and Pollux said to have 

announced the victory of the Romans in the Forum. 
494 Tribunes appointed, consequent rise of Plebeians. 
493 First dateable use of Sibylline books. Cult of three Greek deities, 

Demeter, Kore, Dionysus, established. 
493-403 Constant warfare with Volscians, Sabines, Etruscans, etc. 

Coriolanus. Cincinnatus. Roman standing army established. 

Struggles between Patricians and Plebeians all the century. 

486 First Agrarian laws of Spurius Cassius. 

484 Foundation of Temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum. 
474 Truce with Veii. Defeat of Etruscans at Cumae. 
455 Aventine given for building for plebeians and artisans. Rise of 
Trades, Guilds, and Collegia. 



4 o FIFTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, x 

453 Commissioners sent to Greece to examine laws and codes of Solon. 
451 Decemviri appointed. Power of plebeians increased. Code of 

ten tables on speakers' platform in the Forum. 
449-425 Decadence of Etruria. 
421 Quaestorship opened to plebeians, removal of many of their 

disabilities. 

INDIA 

Kingdom of Magadha (Sisunaga Dyn.) prominently powerful, and had 

absorbed neighbouring states. 

C. 487 Buddha died. Rise of architecture and sculpture to supply 
Buddhistic buildings of five kinds — (1) Stambas or Lats, i.e., 
Pillars with inscriptions and statues; (2) Stupas or Topes, i.e., 
Towers commemorating events, and Dogabas, containing re- 
lics of Buddha and Saints; (3) Rails enclosing Stupas or sacred 
trees, temples, pillars, and other sacred objects; (4) Chaityas or 
Assembly Halls; (5) Vehaias or Monasteries. 

C. 450 Earliest Indian building to which approximate date can be 
assigned is the Stupa at Piprahra (Nepal frontier), a domed 
mass of brickwork giving definite information of the existence of 
skilled masons and accomplished stone-cutters — the great stone 
coffer containing very skilled work of the lapidaries and gold- 
smiths of the time, and proving an advanced condition of civiliza- 
tion in accordance with information from early literary sources. 
Mahabharata, great epic poem, took form during this century; 
historical germ goes back to tenth century; first expansion be- 
tween 300 b.c. and our era. 

Ramayana, epic. Original part probably composed about 
500 B.C.; more recent portions added later on. 

CHINA 

Chow Dyn. still holding, but declining. 475 to 469, Era of the con-^> 
tending States. ' 

498 Confucius left his home and wandered in voluntary exile for about 
fourteen years, disgusted with the failure of his attempt to influence 
and improve affairs of state. 
479 Confucius died about five years after his return to his native 
country ; he is one of the essential figures to be considered in con- 
nection with the history of China; great influence on the develop- 
ment of Chinese national character. 



chap, xi] FO UR TH CENTUR Y B.C. 41 



CHAPTER XI 

FOURTH CENTURY B.C. 

Greece. — Seleucid Kingdom of Syria. — Cyprus. — Carthage and Phoenicia. — 
Sicily. — Persia. — Egypt. — Hebrews. — Rome. — India. — China. 

GREECE 

399 Accession of Agesilaus to throne of Sparta, supported by Lysan- 
der. Campaigns in Asia Minor. Victorious over the Persians. Hege- 
mony of Sparta. 

395-388 Corinthian War. Corinth, Thebes, Argos, and Athens allied 
against Sparta. 

394 Fall of the Spartan supremacy in Asia Minor. Cos, Ephesus, Samos, 
Chios, and Mitylene threw off the Spartan yoke. 

393 Fortification of Athens. Long walls rebuilt. 

390 Sparta intrigued with Persia, gained nothing, lost her naval suprem- 
acy and the command of the Aegean. 

387-379 Last years of the Spartan Hegemony. Anarchy in the Pelopon- 
nesus. Rise of Thebes. 

379 Conspiracy at Thebes against the Polemarchs. Thebes freed and 
rose under Pelopidas and Epaminondas. 

378-377 Campaign of Agesilaus of Sparta against Thebes. 

374 Thebans conquered Boeotia. 

371 Athens made peace with Thebes. War between Sparta and Thebes. 
King Cleombrotus of Sparta. Epaminondas of Thebes. Battle 
of Leuktra. Sparta vanquished. Thebes predominant in Greece. 

370 Athens joined Sparta. 

368 Pelopidas and Epaminondas of Thebes fighting in Thessaly. 

364 Continued fighting in the Peloponnesus. Battle of Olympia during 
the games. 

362 Death of Epaminondas at the battle of Mantinea; end of the war. 
Greatness of Thebes passed away with him. Athens, Elis, Achaia, 
and Mantinea signed a peace on one side; Thebes, Argos, and the 
Arcadian league on the other. Sparta, refusing to acknowledge the 
independence of Messenia, was left out of the agreement. History 
of succeeding period without unity and cohesion. 

361 Death of Agesilaus, last link of the past Spartan glory. 

359 Philip (son of Amyntas, a king of Macedonia early in the century) 
was appointed guardian of the son of Perdiccas III, King of Mace- 
donia, who was killed in battle with the Illyrians. 

358 Philip deposed the young king and was proclaimed king himself. 
Rise of the power of Macedonia. 

357 Outbreak of the " Social war." Athens against the allies, Byzan- 
tium, Chios, Rhodes, Cos, etc. Ended 355. 



42 



FOURTH CENTURY B.C. 



[chap. XI 



Phocians seized Delphi; outbreak of second Sacred war. 
Advance of Philip of Macedon. Conquests in Greece opposed by 
Demosthenes. 

Athens submitted to Philip after the battle of Chaeroneia. Mace- 
donia supreme. 

Philip assassinated. Accession of his son, Alexander the Great. 
Great spread of power of Macedonia. 

Invaded Asia Minor. Was welcomed by the great cities there. 
Founded Alexandria in Egypt. Occupied Babylon, subdued 
Persia and Darius III. Invaded India in 327. 
Death of Alexander at Babylon, aged thirty-two years and eight 
months. Greek cultivation and language had spread through his 
immense conquests. His Macedonian Empire split up among his 
generals after his death. Much fighting ensued among them. 
Revolt in Greece headed by Athens and the Aetolians. Subdued by 
the Macedonian governor and general Antipater. 
Death of Antipater. War between his son Cassander and Poly- 
sperchon, who had been appointed governor by Antipater. 
Cassander recovered Athens. 307 His garrison driven out by 
Demetrius Polyorcetes, son of Antigonus, one of Alexander's 
generals. 

Four ^years' war between Cassander and Demetrius for the 
possession of Greece. War between Demetrius and Ptolemy I, Soter 
of Egypt. 
ART. Best classical period continued, and the immense spread of 
Greek art and manners owing to the great conquests of Alexander the 
Great gave rise to the Hellenistic period of art. Hellenistic schools were 
based on the types of Praxiteles, Scopas, and Lysippus. Tanagra terra- 
cottas fourth and third centuries. 



356 
35 2 

338 

336 

334 
33* 

323 



322 



3i9 



3i7 



306 



Sculptors 



Cephisodotus (Athens). 
Praxiteles (his son or 

brother). 
Silamon (Athens). 
Euphranor (also a painter). 

TimoTheus \ The ? a11 worked on 
Bryaxis j 
Leochares J 
Lysippus. 



younger 



the tomb of Mauso- 
lus (B.M.). 



Chares (his pupil). 

Lysistratus (brother of Lysippus). 

Boedas, Daippus, and Euthycrates 

(sons and pupils of Lysippus). 
Agasias (son of Menophilus). 
Agasias (son of Deositheus). 
Eutichites. 
Damophon (has also been placed 

later). 
Boethus. 



Some of the greatest works, Sculptures and Buildings 

Some of the finest single figures and heads Greece ever produced of 
gods, goddesses, athletes, niobids. Undraped female figures rare till this 
century. Fine Attic funerary steles, high and low reliefs, and votive reliefs, 
and maenad reliefs, etc. 



CHAP. 



XI] 



FOURTH CENTUR Y B.C. 



43 



Four very celebrated Statues 



Apoxyomenos (Lysippus), Graeco- 
Roman copy. V.M. 



Eirene (Cephisodotus). M. 
Hermes (Praxiteles). O.M. 
Demeter (Scopas ?). B.M. 

Nike of Samothrace to commemorate a naval victory, c. 306 (L.). 

Tanagra terra-cotta figures based on types of Praxiteles. Sidon 
Sarcophagus, so-called Alexander sarcophagus (Constantinople). Sculp- 
ture of new temple at Ephesus rebuilt after the fire, 356, on lines of 
early temple — architect, Democrates. Temple of Athena Alea at Tegea 
rebuilt, and sculptures by Scopas. Temple of Apollo Delphi rebuilt, after 
destruction by earthquake, on old plan. Theatre of Epidaurus designed 
by the younger Polyclitus, nephew of the great Polyclitus. Tholos at 
Epidaurus fine decoration. Monument of Lysicrates, Athens, with 
Choragic frieze. Gold treasure from the river Oxus. B.M. 



Artists 














Eupompus 


(founded 


Protogenes, contempor- 


Nicomanthus. 




School of Sicyon). 


ary of Apelles (Ionic 


Euphranoi 


• (also 


sculp- 


Pamphilus. 




School). 


tor). 






Apelles (Ionic 


School), 


Pausias. 


Nicias. 






greatest of the ancient 


Milanthius. 


Antiphilus 






painters. 




Aristeides. 


Theon. 






VASES. Group VIII. (See Appendix XII.) 








LITERATURE AND ORATORS 






Socrates 


B. D. 

5th cent. 399 


Demosthenes 


B. 
385 


D. 
322 


Lysias 


458 378 


Aristotle 


384 


322 


Aristophanes 


448 380 


Theopompus (his- 






Isocrates 


436 33 8 


torian) 


c- 378 




Xenophon 


c- 43i 354 


Philemon 


360 


262 


Plato 


c. 428 347 


Zeno (Cyprus) 


c. 360 


264 


Isaeus 


c. 420 c. 350 


Demetrius Phalereus 


c- 35o 


282 


Diogenes 


412 323 


Timaeus of Sicily 


345 


c. 249 


Epaminondas 


5th cent. 362 


Epicurus 


342 


270 


Lycurgus (Attic ora- 


Menander 


342 


291 


tor) 


39 6 3 2 3 


Euclid 


c. 328 


282 


Hypereides 


c. 390 c. 322 


Callimachus 


c. 310 


c. 240 


Aeschines 




3 8 9 3 J 4 


Cleanthes 




'• 305 


c. 220 



312 



302 



SELEUCID KINGDOM OF SYRIA 

Seleucus Nicator, one of Alexander's officers, founded the king- 
dom after the division of Alexander's dominions. Built Antioch. 
Conquered Babylon, Suseana, and Media. 

Joined the league formed by Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander 
against their common enemy Antigonus Cyclops, one of Alex- 



44 FOURTH CENTURY B.C. [chap, xi 

ander's generals. The Empire of Seleucis, the most extensive and 
powerful of those formed out of the dominions of Alexander. 

CYPRUS 

During fourth and succeeding centuries sculpture and all native art 
became debased, except a few statues, which are purely Hellenic, not 
really Cypriote. Terra-cottas in B.M. 

CARTHAGE AND PHOENICIA 

360 Carthaginians formed settlements in Spain. 

332 Phoenician power ended, Alexander capturing Tyre. 



SICILY 

397 War with Greeks and Carthaginians. 

367 Dionysius I died. Had been supreme in Sicily. Syracuse at her 
zenith under him. Built Fort Euryalus. Dionysius II, his son, very 
inferior. 

356 Dion dethroned Dionysius II. 353 Dionysius II recovered 
authority. 

343 Timoleon became supreme; restored the Republic. 

337 Agathocles overthrew the Republic. 

About 305 Theocritus the poet born at Syracuse. 

PERSIA 

398 Artaxerxes II. War with Greece. Egypt and Cyprus assisted 
Greece. 

394 Persian fleet defeated the Spartans at Cnidus. 

387 Peace of Antalcidas. Asiatic Greeks restored to Persia. 

383 Enagoras of Cyprus surrendered to Persia. 

370-363 Renewed revolts in Asia Minor. Egypt joined the rebels 

and invaded Syria. 
358 Artaxerxes III seized the throne. Persians defeated in Egypt. 
352 Revolt of Sidon joined by Cyprus. 345 Both subdued by 

Persia. 
340 Conquest of Egypt. 

337 Mithridates I of Pontus became independent of Persia. 
335 Darius III ascended the throne. 
334-33 2 Alexander the Great defeated Darius at Granicus and 

Issus. 
330 Persian Empire incorporated with Macedonia and Greece. 

EGYPT 

398-382 Kings of the XXIX Dyn. Some of them allied with Greece 
against Persia. 



chap, xi] FOURTH CENTURY B.C. 45 

DYN. XXX. 

378 Nectanebo I defeated the Persians. Egypt at peace for eighteen 

years. Additions to many temples. 
361 Teos. Treaty with Agesilaus of Sparta against Persia. Teos died 

at the Persian Court — he fled there for help against the Egyptians. 
359 Nectanebo II made king in place of Teos. Agesilaus in Egypt, 

died on his way home. Persians defeated for a time, finally sue 

cessful. Nectanebo II fled to Ethiopia. 
DYN. XXXI. 
342 Ochus, Persian king, took name of Artaxerxes. Egyptian religion 

insulted. Apis bull killed and eaten. 

339 Arses, Persian king. 

336 Darius III, Persian king. Overthrown by Alexander the Great. 
Egypt laid waste under these three Persian kings. 

331 Alexander master of all Egypt. Revival of Egypt began. Alex- 
andria founded. 

323 Alexander died. Rule assumed by his Satrap Ptolemy I opposed 
by Perdiccas, one of Alexander's generals. 

315 War with Antigonus (also one of Alexander's generals) for pos- 
session of Syria. Ptolemy victorious. He took many Jews prisoners 
into Egypt. War with Demetrius of Greece, son of Antigonus. 

305 Ptolemy I, Soter. Assumed the title of King of Egypt. His 
great wars came to an end, the smaller ones continued. Alexandria 
rising, her great period beginning. 
Ascetic community in the Fayoum 340 (Gnostic). 

LITERATURE. Hermetic and Gnostic literature (see Appendix 
XIV), dated books. 

350 Definitions of Asklepios. 

340 "The Perfect Sermon," first hints of Asceticism, Indian in- 
fluence introduced by Persian occupation. 

332 "About the Universal Mind." The Logos ( = human wis- 
dom). 

Hermetic and Gnostic books of the fourth century, undated books. 
" The Secret Sermon " — development of the divine Logos doctrine. 
" The Shepherd of Men " — the mythical shepherd Hermes = the mind 

of God. 
"The Cup" and "The Font." About 300 b.c. Logos doctrine 
more advanced. 

HEBREWS 

370 Persian Satrap suppressed Civil War. 

350 Temple destroyed. Artaxerxes III deported many Jews. 

333 Israel under Alexander the Great. 

312 Ptolemy I (Soter). Conquered Jerusalem. Jews taken prisoners 

to Egypt. 
302 Judah taken by Ptolemy I. 
300 Simon repaired the Temple. 



46 FO UR TH CENTUR Y B. C. [chap, xi 

ROME 

399 The Lectisternium instituted, when the gods were carried to 

their feast in procession among the people. 
396 Rome conquered Veii. Etruscans in conflict with Rome during 

the century, and gradually fading out. 
390 Gauls sacked Rome. Forum and Comitium ruined. Flight of 

Vestals from their temple to save the sacred objects of worship. 

The city gradually rebuilt. Proposal to make Veii the capital 

defeated. 
389-377 Wars with Etruscans, Volscians, and Aequians. 
366 First Plebeian Consul. Laws of Liciniusand Sextius to equalize 

condition of patricians and plebeians. Temple of Concord built to 

commemorate end of the struggle between them. 
361 Another invasion of Gauls followed by others until 336, when a 

treaty was made. 
356 First Plebeian Dictator. 351 First Plebeian Censor. 
343 First Samnite War. 
340-338 Latin War. End of the Latin league. Gaius Maenius placed 

the beaks of ships taken at Antium on the speakers' platform in the 

Forum (called henceforth " Rostra "), also created galleries on the 

roofs of the booths in the Forum for spectators of the games held 

there. 
337 First Plebeian Praetor. 
327 Second Samnite War. 321 Defeat of Roman army at the 

Claudine Forks. 304 Samnites laid down their arms. 
312 Censorship of Appius Claudius Caecus. Via Appia. Great 

aqueduct. Seven new temples with statues by Greek artists. First 

written and recorded oration. 
300 First Plebeian Priests. Rome gaining dominion over other Italian 

cities. Latin colonies increased. 

INDIA 

360 Nanda Dyn. founded in Magadha kingdom. 

326 Alexander the Great crossed the Indus; his invasion practically 

left no mark on the civilization of India. 
325-315 Chandragupta Maurya, a connection of the Nanda Dyn., 

took the kingdom of Magadha, founding the Maurya Dyn., the most 

brilliant and best known of the ancient Indian Dyns. 
312 Seleucus Nicator tried to recover the provinces Alexander had 

conquered, prevented by Chandragupta, who is said to have placed 

600,000 men in the field. 
306 Peace between Seleucus and Chandragupta, and Megasthenes 

sent by Seleucus as ambassador to the Indian court. From his book, 

written during his residence there, a great deal of detail is known 

of the court and administration. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Beginning of importation of Eu- 



chaps, xi-xn] FOURTH AND THIRD CENTURIES B.C. 47 

ropean Art motives at the end of the century owing to active intercourse 
by land and sea during the Maurya period. 

300 Brahmanic system of caste flourishing with some changes owing 
to growth of Buddhism. 

LITERATURE. Last phase of Vedic literature. The Sutra con- 
tinued. Purana Vaya, beginning of the Purana epics. 
C. 350 Panini wrote his great Sanskrit grammar " The Ashtadhyarji," 
stereotyping the ancient Indian language. 

CHINA. (Chow Dyn. and contending States) 

372 Mencius born, a wandering philosopher, follower of Confucius, 
social reformer and leader of political economy. His mother a 
celebrated woman, and as familiar a figure to the Chinese as the 
mother of the Gracchi was to the Romans. 

Chuang-Tzu, follower of Lao-Tzu and Taoism, heterodox in the 
eyes of a Confucionist, but justly esteemed for his pointed wit and 
charming style. 

3*08 Hing-wu-ling introduced cavalry in imitation of the Hun-yii 
Tartar tribes, whose constant encroachments were always made on 
horseback; the Chinese fought in chariots. These Tartar tribes 
were possibly the ancestors of the Huns of Attila, who invaded 
Europe in the third century a.d. on horseback. 

300 Game of Weichi mentioned, said to have been invented 2357 B.C., a 
kind of draughts, 300 black and white pips, 324 squares — still played. 

LITERATURE. Several authors of note of minor philosophies during 
this century. 

Poet Ku Yuan. Drowned himself, anniversary still commemorated 
by a kind of regatta (the dragon boat festival) and search for the body of 
the poet, who sacrificed his life while striving to serve his country. 

ART. The Chinese said to have had pictures long before the days 
of Apelles of the fourth century ? 



CHAPTER XII 

THIRD CENTURY B.C. 

Greece and Macedonia. — Kingdom of Pergamos. — Seleucid Kingdom of Syria. — 

Parthian Kingdom. — Hebrews. — Egypt. — Sicily. — Carthage. — Rome. — 

India. — Ceylon. — China. 

GREECE AND MACEDONIA 

296 Confusion and rival kings in Macedonia. 

287 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, invaded Macedonia. Was accepted as 
king. 



4 8 



THIRD CENTURY B.C. 



[chap. XII 



280 Achaean and Aetolian leagues opposed Macedonia. 

278 Aetolian confederacy became the^ most important representative 

of Greek independence. 

Antigonus Gonatas, King of Macedonia, descendant of one of 

Alexander's generals, master of all Greece except Sparta. 

The Chremonidean War. Athens and Sparta allied in revolt 

against Macedonia. 

Antigonus took Athens. End of her independence and political 

importance. 

Corinth and Megara joined the Achaean league, the Macedonian 

garrison expelled from Aero-Corinth. 

Accession of Demetrius II of Macedonia. 

Accession of Antigonus Doson, guardian of his nephew, Philip V 

of Macedon, son of Demetrius II. 

War between Cleomenes, King of Sparta, and the Aetolian league. 

Athens freed from Macedonia, allied with Rome. 

Accession of Philip V of Macedon. The social war between 

Aetolian and Achaean leagues. 

Alliances of Philip V with Hannibal and of the Aetolian league with 

Rome. First Macedonian War. 
211 Sparta joined Rome. 206 Peace between Rome and Macedonia. 
200 Second Macedonian War with Rome broke out. Greek dissen- 
sions led to Roman intervention. 
ART. Period of Hellenistic sculpture, which had arisen through the 
spread of Greek civilization by Alexander the Great. Chief centres, the 
Schools of Pergamos, Ephesus, Tralles, Rhodes, and Alexandria. Tanagra 
terra-cottas. 



277 

266 

262 

243 

2 39 
229 

227 
226 



215 



Sculptors 



Chares of Rhodes. 

Boethus of Calcedon (chiefly chil- 
dren). 

Eutychites (pupil of Lysippus) im- 
personations of Cities. 



T • \ Stated by Pliny to 

Vh n h ^ ave been employed 

0i ^T . Vby Attalus to work 

Stratomcus u- *. 

. . on his monuments 

Antigonus J (Pergamos) . 



Some great works of Hellenistic Sculpture 

Groups and figures commemorating the victories of Attalus I of 
Pergamos over the Gauls. Series of giants, Amazons, Persians, and Gauls. 
The dying Gaul (formerly called a Gladiator). C.M.R. Relief pictures 
of the Alexandrian School for decorative purposes, many pastoral as well 
as mythological subjects. 

The Nile figure from Alexandria, with sixteen children. V.M. 

Bronze Colossos of Rhodes (Chares). Boy and Goose (Boethus). 
C.M.R. Tyche of Antioch (Eutychites). V.M. 

PAINTING. The School of Sicyon maintained its reputation till 
the middle of the century. 

VASES. Group VIII. (See Appendix XII.) 



CHAP. XIl] 



THIRD CENTURY B.C. 



49 



LITERATURE 



B. 
360 

342 
328 



Zeno (Cyprus) c. 

Epicurus 

Euclid c. 

Callimachus (librarian at 

Alexandria) ^310 

Timon of Phlius ^310 

Bion of Smyrna fl. C.2Z0 

Lycophron at Alexan- 
dria <r. 285 
Aratus fl. 270 
Aristophanes of Byzan- 
tium fl. 264 



D. 

264 
270 
282 

c. 240 
c. 230 



247 



B. 
280 
280 



D. 



Zenodotus 

Chrysippus 280 207 

Eratosthenes (librarian 

at Alexandria) 276 c. 196 

Euphorion of Chalcis 
(librarian at Alex- 
andria) c. 274 c. 200 

NianthesofCyzicus fl. c. 240 

Apollonius of Perga 256 ^.210 

Rhianthus of Crete pub- 
lished a new edition of 
Homer in 222 



KINGDOM OF PERGAMOS 

Arising out of the division of Alexander's dominions. 
280 Philelairas. 

263 Eumenes I. Defeated Antiochus in a battle near Sardis. 
241 Attalus I. Defeated the Gauls of Galatia. Great altar and sculp- 
tures commemorate the victory. 

SELEUCID KINGDOM OF SYRIA 
280 Antiochus Soter succeeded Nicator. Armenia subject to 

Seleucids. 
278-250 Nicomedes I. 277 Gauls (Galatia) invaded Asia Minor. 
223 Antiochus III (the Great) ruled Syria, lost Coele-Syria, and 
Phoenicia to Egypt, and regained them from Ptolemy V. 
Berosis (Bar-Osea), a priest at Babylon, wrote the Chronicles of 
Chaldea in 280. 

PARTHIAN KINGDOM 
261 Revolt of Parthians from Seleucid rule. Establishment of 

Parthian kingdom. 
250 Arsaces founded the Arsacid Dyn. 

HEBREWS 

294-280 Nominal Seleucid rule. 

285 Septuagint finished at Alexandria by seventy members of the 
Sanhedrin. 

219 Jerusalem pillaged. Temple profaned during war between Antio- 
chus the Great and Ptolemy Philopater of Egypt. 
Judea lost to the Ptolemies. Seleucids possessed the land. 



204 



295 



EGYPT (Ptolemaic period) 

Ptolemy I, Soter. Regained Cyprus. He encouraged the wor- 
ship of Egyptian gods. The worship of Serapis very popular. He 



5 o THIRD CENTURY B.C. [chap, xn 

married (i) Eurydice, daughter of Antipater; (2) Berenice, grand- 
niece of Antipater. 
285 Ptolemy II, Philadelphia. A cultivated Hellenist; many 
learned and literary men at his court. 280 The monster procession, 
pageant, and feast. Built many temples. Encouraged trade. Embassy 
to Rome. Married (1) Arsinoe, a princess of Thrace; (2) his 
sister Arsinoe. 
247 Ptolemy III, Euergetes. Extended his conquests to Bactria, 
Babylon, and Persia. Attacked Ephesus. Built and restored temples. 
Great pylon at Karnak. A good king. Increased the prosperity of his 
country. Decree of Canopus written. Wife, Berenice of Cyrene. 
222 Ptolemy IV, Philopater. Less able man. Inferior character 
according to Polybius and Strabo. Built and restored temples. 
Attacked by Antiochus III of Syria. 
205 Ptolemy V, Epiphanes. Lost most of the cities of Palestine and 
Phoenicia to Antiochus, and the cities of the Hellespont to Philip V 
of Macedon. Egypt assisted by Rome. Rosetta stone gives account 
of his accession. Wife, Cleopatra, daughter of Antiochus. 
The classical age of Alexandrian learning rose. Ptolemy I founded 
the University and famous library there. The schools, existing till a.d. 640, 
included almost every scientific man of the time. Culture and learning 
encouraged by the Ptolemies. Manetho wrote his history during the reign 
of Ptolemy II. Philetus, tutor of Ptolemy II. Eratosthenes flourished 
c. 238. 

SICILY 

289 Agathocles died. Political dissensions. 

279 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, entered Sicily. Defeated the Carthaginians. 

276 he retired. 
264 First Punic War arose between Carthaginians and Greeks against 

Rome. 

263 Hiero II, King of Syracuse. Defeated by the Romans. Made peace 
with Rome. 

216 Hieronymus, grandson of Hiero II, succeeded. Renounced 

alliance with Rome. 
214 Marcellus, Roman Consul, besieged Syracuse. 
210 Sicily became a Roman province. 

Theocritus of Syracuse flourished 270. Moschus of Syracuse. 

Archimedes b. 287, killed 212, when Syracuse was taken by Rome. 

CARTHAGE 

264 First Punic War in Sicily. 
237 Carthaginians invaded Spain. 

229 Hasdrubal succeeded Hamilcar in Spain in command. 

228 Hasdrubal founded Carthagena in Spain. 

218 Second Punic War. Hannibal crossed the Alps. 

205 Carthaginians driven from Spain by Rome. 



chap, xn] THIRD CENTURY B.C. 51 

ROME 

298-290 Third Samnite War. 

295 Rome fighting Etruscans, Samnites, and Gauls. 

286 All remaining important distinctions between Patricians and 

Plebeians ended legally, though much social distinction remained. 
280 Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, in Italy to help Tarentum against Rome. 

Was driven out after the battle of Beneventum, 275. 
265 Rome supreme in Italy. Colonies founded, great roads made. 

269 First silver coinage. 
264 First Punic War. Carthaginians led by Hamilcar, father of 

Hannibal. First exhibition of Gladiators at Rome. 
260 First Roman fleet built. Victory at sea. Scipio Africanus. 
249 First recorded Ludi saeculares. 
241 Peace with Carthage. The ceded parts of Sicily formed the first 

Roman province there. 
220 Gaius Flaminius Censor. Via Flaminia. 
218 Second Punic War. Hannibal crossed the Alps. 
217 Romans defeated at Lake Trasimene. 
216 First war with Macedonia. 215 Treaty between Hannibal 

and Philip V of Macedonia. 
210 Scipio Africanus, Consul. Great fire in the Forum. Many fine 

new buildings in consequence. 207 First gold coinage in Rome. 
205 Rome steadily interfered in Greek and Macedonian affairs. 
204 Dea Dei (Cybele) brought to Rome from Phrygia to aid Romans 

in resisting Hannibal's approach, and Greek gods brought inside the 

Pomerium. 
202 Death of Hannibal. Carthage conquered. Battle of Zama. End 

of Punic War. 
201 Scipio's great triumphal progress on his return. 
200 Second war with Macedonia broke out. 

RISE OF LATIN LITERATURE and Greek influence during the 
third century. 



Livius Andronicus in Rome, 275, 
first play exhibited there. 

Plautus, 254-184. 

Fabius Pictor, first historian of 
Rome, b. 245. 



Ennius, 239-169. 

Cn. Naevius. Poem and Latin plays, 

b. 235. 
Terence in Rome, 222. 
M. Porcius Cato, 234-149. 



ART. Importation of Greek sculpture in large quantities from Syracuse, 
Capua, and Tarentum, etc., as they fell under Roman rule, and consequent 
cultivation of artistic taste in Rome which later on gave rise to Graeco- 
Roman art. 

INDIA 

297 Death of the great Chandragupta after a brilliant reign. Suc- 
ceeded by Bindusara his son. Ambassador from Seleucus Nicator 
at his court. 



52 THIRD CENTURY B.C. [chap, xii 

272 The Great Asoka, son of Bindusara, became King of Magadha. 
One of the most beneficent rulers India has ever seen. Converted to 
Buddhism, which he made the State religion by edict. He ultimately 
assumed the monastic robe. Great rise of the two monastic systems 
of Buddhism and Jainism. Missionaries sent to the remote 
parts of the kingdom, to Ceylon, and the independent kingdom of 
South India. 

He was in communication with Syria, Egypt, Macedonia, 
Epirus, and Cyrene. 

Before the time of Asoka the principal Art of India was in crafts, 
painting, wood-carving, and metal. When he became a devout 
Buddhist a new art of building arose out of the need for temples, 
etc. He erected numerous Stupas, and marked the sacred places of 
Buddha with monolith pillars 50 feet high. A new development of 
Indian art is illustrated by the great stone sculptures of the 
Bharhut and Sanchi Stupas, very important monuments of his 
time, and those places became permanent centres of art, creating 
their own schools. Great series of reliefs of Buddhist mythology. 
Rock edicts of Asoka giving dates from which many important 
events are calculated before and after him — and Rock temples of 
his time with inscriptions. 

231 Dasaratha succeeded on the death of Asoka, his grandfather, and 
after his rule the Maurya Empire crumbled to pieces under the 
sway of various rulers. Rock temples and inscriptions of his time. 

208 Antiochus III, the Seleucid, raided the territories west of the 
Indus, and obtained a supply of elephants from the King of Kabul, 
Suthagascua. 

C. 200 Earliest Caves of Ajunta, and sculptures for Hindu Ascetics. 

CEYLON 

250 Ceylon one of the principal capitals of Buddhism. Mission sent 
by Asoka from India, and the sacred Bo-tree cuttings planted 
there, and a magnificent colossal statue of Buddha erected. 

CHINA (end of the Chow Dyn.) 

256 Nanwang (Son of Heaven), the last Chow Emperor, died. Em- 
pire consisted of eleven states, of which the Ts'in Dyn. state rose to 
pre-eminence; and the short-lived Ts'in Dyn. was founded in place 
of the Chow Dyn. 

255 Sun K'uang appointed to High Office. Anti-Confucianist. Edu- 
cated the great anti-Confucianist Li-Ssi, and the philosopher Han- 
Fii-tzi — both produced literature. CameFs-hair brush invented by a 
General Ming-tien for use as a pen. 

221-210 Chi-Huang-Ti, called the first "Universal Emperor." Built 
the " Great Wall of China " to keep out the Huns. Reorganized the 
administration. A great ruler, but one blot stains his memory; 
wishing to destroy all records of the past, he had all the books 



chaps, xii-xiii] THIRD AND SECOND CENTURIES B.C. 53 

referring to history burnt, and also numbers of literati were executed. 

These acts, suggested by Li-Ssi, incurred great hostility. Chi-Huang- 

Ti had a magnificent funeral, buried, like the Huns, in the river bed. 
217 A Buddhist priest came to China, but nothing more was heard 

of Buddhism till the Emperor Ming-Ti established it officially, 

75-58 B.C. 
C. 206 The Great Han Dyn. founded during an insurrection by a 

general who took the throne, named Lieou Pang. He assumed the 

name of Kaotsou. Instituted new and less barbarous penal laws. 

The Chinese still proud to call themselves sons of Han. 
Great flying bridge, 150 yards long over a valley 500 feet below, by 
great engineers of the time. 



CHAPTER XIII 

SECOND CENTURY B.C. 

Greece and Macedonia. — Pergamos. — Rome. — Seleucid Kingdom. — Parthia. — 
Hebrews. — Egypt. — Armenia. — Sicily. — India. — Ceylon. — China. — Japan. 

GREECE AND MACEDONIA 

198 Defeat of Philip V of Macedon by Flaminius. Achaeans and Spartans 

joined the Romans. 
197 Battle of Cynocephalae. Philip renounced supremacy over the 

Greeks. 
194 Antiochus III (the Great) came to help the Aetolians. He was 

defeated by the Romans, who were practically masters of Greece. 
188 Discontent in Sparta. Last remains of the Lycurgan Constitution 

abolished. 
183 Messene revolted from the Achaean league. Was reconquered by 

the Achaeans. 
179 Third Macedonian War with Rome. Perseus, son of Philip, 

succeeded as King of Macedonia. 
173 Embassies from Greece to Rome, and Rome to Greece, numerous 

about this time. 
168 War ended with victory of Rome at Pydna. Macedonian kingdom 

cut up into four commonwealths, all dependencies of Rome. 
149 Fourth Macedonian War. Corinth destroyed. Her art treasures 

sent to Rome. 
148 War ended, Macedonia a Roman province. 
147 . Greeks lost Asiatic possessions. 
146 Achaean and Boeotian leagues dissolved. Termination of Greek 

independence. Greece and Macedonia formed the Roman pro- 
vince of Macedonia. 

ART. Hellenistic sculpture. From this period Greek art, as an original 



54 



SECOND CENTURY B.C. 



[chap. XIII 



and creative force, declined. The great Pergamene school flourished 
under Eumenes and Attalus II of Pergamos, and produced fine works. 
Example, The great marble altar of Zeus at Pergamos to commemorate 
the victory of Eumenes II. Hellenistic Schools of Tralles, Rhodes, 
and Ephesus. Examples, The Farnese Bull by Apollonius and Tauris- 
cus of Tralles. The Belvedere Torso by Apollonius, signed. The 
Laocoon worked on by Agesander, Athenodorus, and Polydorus of 
Rhodes. Agasias, son of Menophilus, and Agasias, son of Dasitheus, 
sculptors of the Ephesian school. Example of the school, The 
Borghese Warrior. The Venus of Milo probably about ioo B.C. 

HELLENISTIC LITERATURE 
Classical age of Alexandrian and Pergamene schools. 

B. D. 

Eratosthenes 276^.196 

Rhodius 181 

Carneades (head of new 

or Sceptical Academy) 213 129 

Polybius c. 204 128 

Hipparchus (astrono- 
mer) fl. 160-145 

Nicander 186 135 

Aristarchus fl. c. 156 

Dionysius Thrax wrote first complete Greek grammar about 120. 



Diogenes of Seleucia 




(head of Stoic School 




at Athens) 


A- 155 


Critolaus the Peripa- 




tetic 


A- iS5 


Apollodorus of 




Athens 


fl. c. 140 


Philo of Byzantium 


fl. c. 140 



PERGAMOS KINGDOM 

197 Eumenes II. Pergamos at its zenith. Many splendid buildings. 

School with good library founded. Eumenes visited Rome, 172. 
159 Attalus II (Philadelphus). 
138 Attalus III. Bequeathed his kingdom to Rome, 133 b.c 



ROME 

200-160 Rome gradually conquering the East. 

198 Alliance with the Achaean league. Philip V of Macedonia 

driven into Thessaly. 
186 Bacchanalian rites forbidden by the Senate. 
C. 184 Censorship of Cato. 

168 First important library in Ancient Rome brought from palace 

of King Perseus of Macedonia. Growth of commerce and law. 
161 Philosophers and Rhetoricians banished. 
149 Third Punic War. 146 Carthage destroyed. 
146 Greece and Macedonia became Roman provinces. 
139 Rising of Slaves in Sicily beginning. 
137 Worshippers of Dionysus and Sabazius expelled. 
136 Aemilius Lepidus defeated in Spain, stripped of his "Im- 

perium." 



CHAP. XIIl] 



SECOND CENTURY B.C. 



55 



133 



Attalus III bequeathed his kingdom to Rome. Rome now ruled 

Italy, Macedonia, Greece, Spain, and Asia Minor. 
133 Attempted refdrm of the Gracchi. Lex Agraria. 
122 Aquae Sextiae founded in Gaul (Aix). 
117 Caius Marius, Consul. After five consecutive consulships he left 

Rome 100 B.C. 
112 War with Jugurtha, King of Numidia. 
106 Command taken by Marius the Consul. Jugurtha defeated, led 

in triumph. 
105 The Cimbri destroyed two Roman armies in Gaul, and advanced. 
104-101 Marius drove back the Teutons and Cimbri. 

ART. Enormous quantity of statues and art treasure brought from 
Greece: Corinth, Athens, Olympia, and Delphi, etc., were gradually robbed, 
and the taste for Greek art spread in Rome. Subsequent rise of Graeco- 
Roman Art. 

First Basilicas in the Forum. 
185 Basilica Porcia, built by Porcius Cato. 
179 Basilica Aemilia, by M. Aemilius Lepidus. 
179 Basilica by Fulvius Nobilior. 187 He brought 1,000 statues 

from Ambracia. 
170 Basilica Sempronia, by Sempronius Gracchus. 

Etruscan Sarcophagus (B.M.), about 150, from Etruscan tombs at 
Cusae. 

LATIN LITERATURE rising. New vigorous development. 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Plautus 


254 


184 


Gaius Lucilius 


168 


102 


Ennius 


239 


169 


Atta 


154 


77 


M. Porcius Cato 


234 


149 


Varro 


116 


28 


First comedy of Terence 






Cicero 


106 


43 


performed in Rome in 






Several minor names 






166 













155 Diogenes the Stoic, Critolaus the Peripatetic, and Car- 
neades the Academic, visited Rome as envoys from Athens, and gave 
lectures in philosophy and rhetoric. 



192 
189 
187 

175 

165 



SELEUCID KINGDOM 
War with Rome. Antiochus III (the Great) defeated. 
Asia Minor given up to Rome. 
Antiochus III died. Seleucus Philopater succeeded. 
Antiochus IV, Epiphanes, regained territories. Uncle of Pto- 
lemy VII. Invaded Egypt. 

Antiochus V, Eupator, followed by Demetrius Soter, Alexander 
Bala, Demetrius Nicator, Antiochus VI Fideles, Antiochus VII 
Gryphus. A time of confusion and civil strife. 
Seleucid kingdom divided. Antiochus VIII Cyzice, at 
Damascus. Antiochus VII Gryphus, at Antioch. 



56 SECOND CENTURY B.C. [chap, xm 



PARTHIA 

145 Parthia vigorous and dominant. Mithridates the Great com- 
menced to rule in 111. 

HEBREWS 

198 Antiochus III (the Great) took Jerusalem. Temple of Onias 
built at Leontopolis (Goshen) during persecution of Jews by 
Antiochus IV (Epiphanes), when the temple at Jerusalem was 
profaned and sacrifices suspended. 

165 Judas Maccabaeus re-consecrated the temple, restored sac- 
rifices. 

145 Judas Maccabaeus freed Judea. The Hasmonaean kingdom. 
104 Scribes and Pharisees opposed Maccabaeans. Civil war. 

EGYPT 

182 Ptolemy VI, Eupator, under regency of his mother, 
Cleopatra I. Short reign. 

182 Ptolemy VII, Philometer. Also son of Cleopatra I, who 
continued to direct affairs. Antiochus IV, his uncle, invaded 
Egypt; Rome assisted to expel him. Ptolemy married Cleo- 
patra II. 

146 Ptolemy VIII, Philopater II. 

146 Ptolemy IX, Euergetes II, son of Epiphanes, brother of Philo- 
meter. Great builder and restorer of temples. No great foreign wars, 
but he exerted influence over the affairs of other nations. Married 
(1) his sister, Cleopatra II, widow of Philometer, and (2) niece 
Cleopatra III, daughter of Philometer. 

117 Ptolemy X, Soter II, Lathyros. Exiled in favour of his 
brother. 

101 Ptolemy XI, Alexander I. 
Alexandrian period of learning. Much of it scientific. 

ARMENIA 

C. 190 Artaxis I Arminidis, King. An independent country. 

150 Valarces (brother of Parthian Mithridates), founded the Ar 
menian branch of the Arsacian Dyn. 

SICILY 

A Roman province, prosperity declining. 
139-135 Ennus, king. Insurrection of slaves against Romans. 
135-132 and 103-99 Servile Wars devastated Sicily, caused by the dis 
satisfaction of the people with the methods of cultivating corn. 
132 Capture of Taormina by Romans. Lex Rupilia. 



chap, xin] SECOND CENTURY B.C. 57 

INDIA 

Period of internal dissensions and foreign invasion at the end of the 
first Empire. The Maury as. 

C. 199 Bactrian king, Demetrius, invaded India, annexed the 
Kabul Valley, Sind, and part of the Punjab — known as " King of 
India." Followed by several Bactrian kings of Hellenistic origin, 
called the " Greek kings." 
188 Andhra Dyn. founded in. Southern India, a powerful Dyn. 
Period of prosperity lasting till beginning of fifth century a.d. 
Ardent Buddhists. Antagonism between Brahminism and Bud- 
dhism led to much internal dissension and disruption, and inde- 
pendent kingdoms formed. 
184 or 178 End of First Indian Empire and the Maurya Dyn. 
Pushyamitra founded the Sunga Dyn. in Northern India. 
Antagonistic to the Buddhists and Jains. 
155 Menander of the so-called Greek kings ruled the Kabul valley, 
and pushed further East; was forced to retire by Pushyamitra, 
founder of the Sunga Dyn. 138 End of the Greek kings in 
India and Bactria. 
130 Mithridates V of Parthia annexed the Western Punjab. Parthian 
influence was predominant in the north-west frontier of India 
for a long time. 
Patanjali founded the Yoga system, the Sankhya doctrine, which 
subsequently exercised considerable influence on the religion and philo- 
sophy of India, though to a less extent than the Vedantic. 

The Ajunta Caves religious frescoes cover a period from the second 
or first century b.c. to the seventh century a.d. 

CEYLON 
A great palace (now ruined) at Anuradhapura, built by King Dut- 
thagameni as a monastery for 1,000 Buddhist monks, to commemorate his 
victory in single combat over the Tamil usurper Elala — 1,600 monolithic 
granite pillars remaining (once sheathed in beaten bronze and copper), 
which supported the structure, said to have been nine stories high. 

CHINA (Han Dyn.) 

Regency of Empress Liuchi, whose terrible and energetic rule consolid- 
ated the power of the dynasty during the reign of two young Emperors. 
Tartar (Hun) wars continued. 
179 Emperor Wenti. Good ruler, set public welfare above personal 

pleasure. 
166 Tartars invaded China with 150,000 horsemen. 
156 Emperor Kingti. Weak, though amiable, ruler. 
140 Emperor Vouti. Great man, endeavoured to raise his country to 
greater splendour. Incessant war with Huns (Tartars). Li Ling 
commanded Chinese forces, and when forced by Huns to surrender 



58 SECOND AND FIRST CENTURIES B.C. [chaps, xiii-xiv 

remained with the Huns. Su-wu also taken by Huns, but remained loyal 
to China, and returned after nineteen years' captivity. The two generals 
both produced poetry. 

CHINESE LITERATURE rising. Several poets, among them Li 
Ling and Su-wu. Ch'ao To'o (the wisdom bag). Statesman and 
author. 

C. 145 Tsu-ma-Ch'ien. The Father of History, also an as- 
trologer. Reformed the Calendar. The first general and comprehensive 
history, most probably scratched with a stylus on bamboo tablets; since 
then every dynasty has had its historian. 

Pottery of Han Dyn., buff, green, and white glaze, and includes 
mortuary objects for tombs. Models of domestic utensils, figures, and 
animals. Han Dyn. period the golden age of the bronze Mirrors, carried 
as charms. 

JAPAN 

Wheel-made pottery in sepulchral mounds, Vases, tazzas. Unglazed 
clay attributed to this century. 



CHAPTER XIV 

FIRST CENTURY B.C. 

Rome. — Egypt. — Armenia. — Parthians. — Seleucids. — Western Asia. — Hebrews. — 
Britain. — India. — China. — Japan. 

ROME 

Political parties and civil war in Rome. Marius involved. He was 
made Consul for the sixth time. Italians forced Rome to extend citizen- 
ship to them. 

90 Social War between Rome and Italian allies. 
89 Marius and Sulla contended for command against Mithridates, 

King of Pontus. Senate gave it to Sulla, but it was transferred to 

Marius. 
88 First war with Mithridates. Sulla resisted his removal from com- 
mand. Flight of Marius to Carthage; he returned, was opposed by 

Sulla, died 86. 

Mithridates had overrun Asia, conquered most of the Greek 

Islands, and passed to Athens, and established supremacy in Greece 

aided by the Greeks. 
87 Sulla laid siege to Athens, captured it, and destroyed the Piraeus. 

Defeated Mithridates at the Battle of Cheroneia in 86. The war 

continued in Asia Minor. Peace concluded in 84. 
83 Second war with Mithridates began in Asia Minor. Civil war 

between Sulla and the younger Marius. 



CHAP. Xiv] 



FIRST CENTUR Y B. C. 



59 



8 1 End of second war and defeat of Mithridates. Great triumph of 

Sulla. Constitutional changes of Sulla. 
79 Sulla opposed by Pompey, resigned his authority, died 78. 
75 Cicero Quaestor in Sicily. Pompey in Spain. 
74 Mithridates again at war with Rome, defeated Cotta, was himself 

defeated at Cyzicus. Pompey in Spain. 
71 Mithridates appealed to Tigranes, King of Armenia, for help. 

Pompey's campaign against them in Asia Minor. 
65 Mithridates a fugitive. Pontus became a Roman province, and 

Armenia a vassal of Rome. 
63 Consulship of Cicero, exiled for execution of Catiline's followers. 
59 Julius Caesar's first consulship. 

58-49 Caesar's campaign and conquest of Gaul. 55 Invasion of Britain. 
49 Struggle between Caesar and Pompey. 
48 Victory of Caesar over Pompey at Pharsalia. 
44 Caesar assassinated. Antony at the head of affairs. 

Caius Octavian came from Apollonia in Illyria and assumed the 

name of Caesar. 
43 Triumvirate of Antony, Octavian Caesar, and Lepidus. 
43 Antony went to the East. 41 Went to Alexandria with Cleopatra. 
36 Lepidus ejected from the Triumvirate. 
32 Quarrel between Antony and Octavian Caesar. Antony deprived of 

his authority. War proclaimed, nominally against Cleopatra. 
31 Antony defeated at Actium, Octavian Caesar supreme. 
27 Octavian proclaimed Emperor Augustus Caesar. Roman 

Empire began. 
15 Campaign of Drusus and Tiberius in Germany began. 
12 Augustus elected Pontifex Maximus. Office restricted to the 

Emperors after this time. 
4 Birth of Jesus Christ. Date now generally accepted though not 

actually certain. Apollonios of Tyana born about the same 

time; said to have visited India c. a.d. 45. 



LATIN LITERATURE (rising rapidly). 





B. 


D. 






B. 


D. 


Quin. Atta 


154 


77 


B.C. 


Virgil 




70 


19 A.D 


Varro 


116 


28 


B.C. 


Horace 




65 


8 B.C 


Cicero 


106 


43 


B.C. 


Strabo 




63 


23 A.D 


Cornelius Nepos 


99 


24 


B.C. 


Vitruvius 








Lucretius 


<■• 95 


5i 


B.C. 


Livy 




59 


17 A.D 


Cato (Uticus) 


95 


46 




Propertius 




c. 51 




Catullus 


c. 87 


47 




Tibullus 




54 


18 B.C 


Sallust 


c. 86 


c- 34 




Ovid 




43 


17 A.D 


Longevius Pompo- 








Seneca (born 


a few 


years 




nius 








B.C.) 






65 A.D 


Pollio (Asinius) 


76 


4 


A.D. 


Diodorus Siculus of Sicily. 





82 B.C. Library of Aristotle brought to Rome from Athens. 



60 FIRST CENTUR Y B. C. [chap, xiv 

70 The Cult of Mithras introduced into Rome. 
36 First public library built in Rome by Asinius Pollio. 
17 Ludi Saeculares with Carmen Saeculare, by Horace (now in Terme 
Museum, Rome). 

Graeco-Roman Art period. Greek sculptors working in Rome pro- 
duced copies of older works and statues in old style and Hellenistic work. 

Arcesilaus, Venus Genetrix for the Forum of Julius Caesar. 

Pasitiles, an Italian Greek. Founded a school in Rome. 

Stephanus, his pupil. Menelaus, pupil of Stephanus, ex. Orestes 
and Electra in Naples. 

Rise of Roman portraiture in bronze, terra-cotta, and marble. Wax 
portrait masks. 

The Ara Pacis erected in Rome 13 b.c to commemorate the victories 
of Augustus in Spain and Gaul. 

Painting, decorative; beautiful festoons of fruits and flowers. 

Buildings 



83 Temple on Capitol rebuilt after 

fire. 
76 Tabularium on site of former 

building. 
Temple of Saturn in Forum. 
54 Basilica Aemilia rebuilt. 



54 Basilica Julia begun. 

52 Theatre of Porticus and Pompey. 

46 Forum Julium dedicated. 

New Rostra. 
36 Regia rebuilt. 
2 7 Pantheon by Agrippa and baths. 



Circus Maximus rebuilt by Julius Caesar, said to have been preceded 
by Tarquinius Priscus, and restored with considerable additions during the 
Republic. 

EGYPT 

88 Ptolemy Lathyros returned from exile. 

81 Ptolemy XII (Alexander II). Married Berenice III, widow of 
Alexander I, murdered her after nineteen days. He was deposed by 
Sulla, Dictator of Rome, and taken to Rome. 

81 Ptolemy XIII. Auletes (flute player) married Cleopatra V. 
Father of the great Cleopatra VI. Completed Edfu. Banished 
in 59 to Ephesus, went to Rome, restored to the throne in 55. 
Most idle and worthless of the Ptolemies. 

5 1 Cleopatra VI came to the throne with her brother, Ptolemy XIV ; 
dissensions between them; he raised an army in Syria. Pompey 
went to Egypt after Pharsalia, and was murdered there as he was 
landing. Caesar at Alexandria, and the history of Egypt for a time 
became Roman history. Arsinoe, sister of Cleopatra, taken captive 
to Rome, when Caesar returned. Cleopatra followed Caesar, and 
remained in Rome till he was murdered, 44 b.c. Ptolemy XV, 
younger brother of Cleopatra, reigned four years with her. Died in 
Rome 44 b.c. 

44 Cleopatra returned to Egypt with Antony. She built Dendera. 

30 Death of Cleopatra and Antony. Egypt became a Roman 
province. 



chap, xiv] FIRST CENTURY B.C. 61 



ARMENIA 

95-56 Tigranes (the Great), King. 83 Invaded Syria. Surrendered 

some of his conquests to Rome. Subsequently assisted Mithridates 

against Rome. 
66 Armenia became vassal to Rome. 
56 Artabazes succeeded his father, Tigranes the Great. 
34 Antony invaded Armenia, took Artabazes prisoner. Artabazes was 

beheaded at Alexandria 30 B.C. 
20 Artaxias II, son of Artabazes, deposed by Rome. Tigranes II, 

his brother, placed on the throne by Rome. 

PARTHIANS 

Rome constantly interfering with their affairs and Armenia a source of 
strife between them. 

Mithridates VI (the Great), sixth King of Pontus. Wars with 
Rome. Reigned a long time. 

SELEUCIDS 

75 Seleucid kingdom re-united. 

65 Pompey annexed Syria. Seleucid kingdom ended. 

WESTERN ASIA 

74 Nicomedes III bequeathed Bithynia to Rome. 

44 Antony gave Phoenicia to Cleopatra. 

25 Galatia became a Roman province. 

17 Cappadocia became a Roman province. 

HEBREWS 

63 Pompey took Jerusalem. Judea tributary to Rome. 

47 Julius Caesar made Antipater Procurator of Judea, Samaria, and 

Galilee. 
43 Herod, son of Antipater, fled to Rome to escape from Antigonus, 

King of Judea, and was made King of the Jews. Captured Jerusalem 

and began to rebuild temple. 
4 Birth of Jesus Christ, date now usually accepted, but not actually 

certain. 

BRITAIN 

55 Julius Caesar invaded Britain. 

54 Conquered Cassivelaunus at Verulam (St. Albans). After 
imposing tribute he departed, and Britain was left for about a century. 
At the time of the Roman invasion Celtic Art had developed con- 
siderable skill in Britain. Helmets, shields, sword-sheaths, horse-trappings. 
Cast and repousse work, spiral and interlacing patterns. 



62 - FIRST CENTURY B.C. [chap, xiv 



INDIA 

72 End of Sunga Dyn. Last king a worthless debauchee murdered 
by his Brahmin minister, who took the throne and founded the Kama 
line of four Brahmin kings. 

27 Kama line extinguished by the Andhra monarch, who slew the last 
Kama and annexed his dominions. 

Andhra kingdom one of the most powerful at this period. Trade 
with Greece, Rome, Egypt, China, and the East, and Western Asia. 

160 b.c. to 50 a.d. Indo-Parthian kings governed various parts of 
Indian borderland. 

CHINA 

86 Vouti died. Had waged war with Huns all his reign. A great ruler. 
Followed by several inferior Emperors. 

LITERATURE. Liu Hsiang (b. 80) history, poetry, treatises on 
government; he compiled biographies of eminent women, first work of 
the kind. His son catalogued Imperial library. Yang Hsiung, well- 
known figure in Chinese literature (b. 53). The Lady Pan, poetess 

if. 32). 

Jade works from first century B.C. to twelfth century a.d. All had pro- 
totypes in earlier bronze objects of the Shang Dyn., 1 766-1 122 b.c. 

JAPAN 

Still semi-mythical and much disputed. 

95 Sujen, tenth Mikado. A great civilizer, Empire peaceful and 
prosperous. Taxes first levied on proceeds of the chase and the 
handicrafts of women. Industries growing, and rice fields laid out. 

30 Suinin, eleventh Mikado, his son. Also great civilizer in the 
same way as his father. 

97 Traditional commencement of metal founding. Said to have been 
taught by the Koreans. Clay Images called Tsuchio Ningio 
substituted for the burial with the dead of the living retainers and 
horses of the Imperial family, and other great people in whose service 
they had lived. First used at the burial of the Empress, wife of 
Suinin, at the suggestion of one of the royal counsellors, Nonu-no- 
Sukune. Many of these clay figures have been found. 



chap, xv] FIRST CENTUR Y A.D. 63 



CHAPTER XV 

FIRST CENTURY A.D. 

Roman Emperors. — Egypt under Roman Emperors. — Hebrews. — Parthians. — 
Armenia. — Britain. — India. — China. — Japan. 

ROME 

History of the Empire is practically the history of the civilized world, 
divided into Latin, Greek, and Oriental provinces. 

EMPERORS 

1-14 Augustus. Master of whole Empire. First wife, Scribonia; 
second, Livia. Great campaigns in Germany. 
9 Defeat of Varro prevented Germany becoming a Roman pro- 
vince. 

14 Tiberius Claudius Nero, son of Livia and Tiberius Claudius 
Nero. Married Julia, daughter of Augustus and Scribonia. 

15-16 Campaign of Germanicus (son of Drusus) in Germany. Suc- 
cessful. Wife of Arminius captured. 

17 Recall and death of Germanicus and his wife, Agrippina I. 

37 Caligula (Caius), son of Germanicus and Agrippina I. 

41 Claudius, brother of Germanicus. Third wife, Messalina; fourth 
wife, Agrippina II. Cult of Mithras flourished. 

54 Nero, son of Agrippina II and Domitius Ahenobarbus. First wife, 
Octavia; second, Poppaea. Last of the four Claudian Emperors. 

68 Galba elected by the Senate. Murdered. 

69 Otho elected by Praetorian guards at the Golden Milestone, 
Forum. Murdered. 

69 Vitellius elected by the army on the German frontier. Mur- 
dered. 

69 Vespasian (Titus Flavius), first of so-called Flavian Emperors. 
Restored order. Wife, Domitilla. 

79 Titus, son of Vespasian, second Flavian Emperor. Wife, Marcia 
Furnella; daughter, Julia. Pompeii destroyed 79. 

81 Domitian, brother of Titus, third Flavian Emperor. Banished the 
philosophers. Encouraged the cult of Isis. Wife, Domitia. 

88 Ludi Saeculares. 

96 Nerva. Consul with Vespasian and Domitian. 

98 Trajan. Born in Spain. Established Mithraism. Wife, Pompeia 
Plotina. 



64 



FIRST CENTURY A.D. 



[chap. XV 



LITERATURE 








B. D. 


B. D. 


Livy 


59 B.C. 17 A.D. 


Tacitus 54 1 13 a.d. 


Vitruvius 




Plutarch (date un- 


Ovid 


43 i7 » 


known) outlived 


Seneca 


65 „ 


Trajan 


Pliny (Elder) 


23A.D. 79 „ 


Pliny (Younger) 61 aft. 103 „ 


Valerius Flaccus 


34 62 „ 


Suetonius 69 


Roscius (Actor) 


62 ,, 


Petronius 


Lucan 


39 65 „ 


Celsus under Augustus and Tiberius 


Quintilian 


40 118 „ 


Juvenal 


Martial 


43 ^• I °4 „ 


Epictetus and School of the Stoics 



Palace on Palatine. 

Fora of Julius Caesar, Augustus, 

Vespasian, Nerva, and Trajan. 
Colosseum, Vespasian. 
Baths of Titus. 
Temple of Concord rebuilt by 

Tiberius. 
Golden House of Nero. 



Buildings 

Portico of Octavia. 

Theatre of Marcellus, finished 
by Augustus. 

Great fire of Nero and subse- 
quent rebuilding. 

Temple of Isis and Serapis during 
Domitian's reign. 



ART. Roman art at its best from Augustus to Hadrian. Portrait 
busts and statues. Fine Altars with Boukrania, garlands, and lares. 
House decorative paintings and stucco work. Bronzes from Nemi. 
Vienna cameo and cut gems. Greek painters retained their technical 
skill as late as the early Roman Empire, but only varied the motives of earlier 
artists. Timomachus ascribed by Pliny to the time of Julius Caesar. 
Ludius, or Tadius, time of Augustus. 



EGYPT. (A Roman Province) 
Under 
Augustus. For the most part tranquil and prosperous. 
Tiberius. Peaceful. Work at Philae continued. His portrait there 

receiving Ankh from Isis. He placed list of nomes at Philae, and 

completed a portion of Dendera. 
Caligula. Serious disturbances between Greeks and Jews. Dendera and 

Koptos continued. 
Claudius. Country prospered, trade protected. Dendera and Philae con- 
tinued. In 42, St. Mark said to have been in Egypt. 
Nero. Quarrels between Greeks and Jews. Name on many monuments. 

Egypt at the highest point of prosperity ever reached under Roman 

rule. 
Galba. Name on door at Medinet Habu. 
Otho. Nothing known of him in Egypt except name on door at 

Medinet Habu. 



chap, xv] FIRST CENTUR Y A.D. 65 

Under 
Vitellius. No trace of his name. Hardly recognized as Emperor beyond 

Alexandria. 
Vespasian. Lived at Alexandria. Egyptian soldiers assisted at his siege 

of Jerusalem. 
Titus. Favourite in Egypt. Interested in worship of Egyptian gods. 
Domitian. Quarrels between Nomes regarding the worship of their 

various gods. Emperor encouraged the worship of Egyptian gods. 

Isis and Serapis in Rome. 
Nerva. Had very little influence in Egypt. 
10 a.d. Ascetics (non-Christian) in many parts of Egypt, especially 

round Alexandria, and in many other parts of the world. 
40 Essenes (non-Christian) in Egypt and Judea; rise of idea of virtue 

in renunciation. 

40 Philon's writings, mixture of Greek and Jewish ideas. Logos second 
god making Kosmos. 

41-66 Apollonios of Tyana in Antioch, Babylon, Athens, Crete, 
Corinth, Rome, Spain, Africa, Sicily. 69-70 Egypt, etc. 

HEBREWS 

6 Judea made a Roman province under a procurator. 

38 Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Caligula. 

41 They received right of Roman citizenship. 
50 Claudius banished Jews from Rome. 

68 Invasion conducted by Vespasian. 

70 Titus took Jerusalem; city and temple sacked and burnt. Gradual 
dispersion of the Jews. 
Josephus, 37-100. Simon Magus born in Samaria. 

PARTHIANS 

Armenia a constant source of strife with Rome. 
4 Phraabaces deposed, went to Rome. His successor was murdered. 
9 Vonones I accepted as king. Brought up in Rome. Unpopular. 
16 Artabanus III. Set up as Pretender. Parthians appealed against 

him in 35. 
55 Rome compelled Parthians to evacuate Armenia. War with Rome. 
Parthians repulsed Corbulo, but Rome finally victorious. 

ARMENIA 

Nominal Roman Supremacy, actual anarchy. For many years a 
buffer-State between Rome and Persia (Parthians). 
58 Erovant, a usurper, master of Armenia. 

BRITAIN. 

43 Claudius sent an expedition from Rome, followed himself, and pene- 
trated to Colchester. Subdued the country south of the Avon and 
Severn. Vespasian reduced Isle of Wight during this expedition. 



66 FIRST CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xv 

51 Defeat of Caractacus, who was taken to Rome and led in triumph 

through the streets. 
61 Revolt under Boadicea. She was defeated by Suetonius. 
78 Agricola arrived as Governor of Britain. 
85 He advanced north, defeated Galgacus north of the Tay, and made a 

line of forts to keep back the Picts and Scots. 

INDIA 

21 Gondophares, Parthian king of lower Kabul Valley and Punjab; 
is mentioned in Christian legends of third century, which allege a 
mission of the Apostle Thomas to convert him: also mentioned 
in Chinese legends. 

C. 41 Embassy from Ceylon to Emperor Claudius, noticed by Pliny. 

C. 45 Apollonios of Tyana said to have visited India. 

67 Kas Japa and another Buddhistic teacher visited China at invita- 
tion of Ming Ti. 

85 Final suppression of Indo-Parthian Dyn., except in the delta of 

the Indus under King Kadphises II. 
90 Kadphises demanded a Chinese princess in marriage — proposal 

indignantly rejected. War ensued. Kadphises defeated, compelled 

to pay tribute to China. He subsequently conquered Northern 

India. 

Andhra Dyn. powerful in Southern India. Trade flourishing, and 

Pliny mentions vast quantities of specie taken to Rome from India 

annually. 
Plastic Art. Second period began c. a.d. 50, extending to 350; 
gateways and rails at Sanchi, 10 to 8o(?). 

Traditions of Indian Religious Art being taken into Turkestan and 
China by Indian Buddhist missionaries and craftsmen. Chinese students 
taught in Indian schools. 

First to Fourth Century, the first period of the great Gandhara 
Sculptures (North-West Frontier) in the stone monasteries and Stupas; 
being close to the outposts of the Roman Empire, the art was susceptible 
to Graeco-Roman influence. 

LITERATURE. Charaka, a notable medical authority; his work in 
verse still considered authoritative in India. 



CHINA— Han Dyn. 

6 Wang Mang, usurper, seized the throne, and decreed the Han 
Dyn. extinct. 

23 A Han prince placed on the throne. Murdered by " Crimson Eye- 
brows." 

25 Khang Vouti re-established the Han Dyn. (later Han Dyn.). Good 
ruler. 

58 Ming Ti sent envoy to India to study Buddhism, which made great 
progress under the direct patronage of this Emperor. Works of 



chaps, xv-xvi] FIRST AND SECOND CENTURIES A.D. 67 

Buddhistic art (images) introduced with Graeco-Indian type. Became 
the basis of Buddhistic art in China and Japan. General Panchow 
kept the Huns back and maintained Imperial authority over them. 

75 Chang-li. 

89 Hoti. During his reign, remarkable military achievement of Pan- 
chow in driving the Huns from the frontier. 

Probable commercial relations with Rome obstructed by Parthians. 
New kind of writing paper introduced, resembling Egyptian papyrus, 
and ink invented, superseding a mixture of brick-dust and water. 

LITERATURE. 27-97 Wang Ch'ung, essayist. 79 Ma-Jung, 
" The Universal Scholar," learned in Confucian lore, and an author. Pang- 
chao, female historian; her book, "Admonitions of the Female historian," 
illustrated by Ku Kai-Chih of the fourth century. 

JAPAN 

Semi-mythical and disputed. 

Prince Yamato-Dake, son of the twelfth Mikado, said to have con- 
quered South-west and Eastern Japan for his father. One of the great 
figures of the semi-mythical history of Japan. First taught fire making 
with flint and steel. Many picturesque legends concerning him. 

Mirrors said to be first made, but probably they were used much earlier. 
Lacquer work said to have come into notice, but as its introduction was 
prehistoric, the exact date cannot be fixed. 



CHAPTER XVI 

SECOND CENTURY A.D. 
Rome. — Britain under Rome. — Parthia. — Egypt under Rome. — India. — China. 

ROME 

Trajan. Good ruler. Rome contented. Dacian War. Armenia 
became a Roman province. The Colony of Timgad, Algeria, 
founded. 

117 Hadrian. Travelled much. Studied Greek. Wife, Sabina, a niece 
of Trajan. 

138 Antoninus Pius, "Father of his people." Wife, Faustina. 

fMarcus Aurelius. Teutonic nations threatening. Wife, Faus- 
, J tina II. 

[ * 1 Lucius Verus, brother and colleague of Marcus Aurelius, d. 169. 
VWife, a daughter of Marcus Aurelius. 

180 Commodus. Cruel and wicked. Gibbon dates beginning of de- 
cline from 180. Killed by soldiers who were gaining power. Mith- 
raism favoured. 



68 SECOND CENTURY A.D. [chap, xvi 

192 Pertinax. Stern old Senator. Killed by Praetorian guards and 
the Empire sold to highest bidder. 

193 Julianus. Army objected to him and killed him, fighting ensued 
between the generals. 

193 Septimius Severus. Soldier. Wife, Julia Domna; had life of 
Apollonios of Tyana written. 

Fathers of the Church 



Polycarp, d. c. 169. 
Justin Martyr, d. c. 166. 
Irenaeus, d. c. 200. 



• Clemens Romanus (martyred by 

drowning), d. 100. 
Ignatius, d. 115. 

Christianity suffered under the good Emperors, Trajan and Marcus 
Aurelius. 

LITERATURE, declining. 

Quintilian, d. 118. Herodes Atticus, b. 104. 

Martial, d. 104. Aulus Gellius, n 7-1 86. 

Tacitus, d. 113. Lucian, b. c. 120. 

Suetonius. Dion Cassius (Historian of Rome), 
Cornelius Fronto, c. 100-180?. b. 155. 

Pausanias wrote his travels in the reign of Marcus Aurelius. 

ART AND BUILDINGS. 

Trajanic period of Art. Very fine Roman work. Column in Trajan's 
Forum. Historical bas-reliefs on Arch of Trajan. Reliefs on en- 
closing wall of Trajan's Forum, used later for Arch of Constantine. 
Statues and busts, good decorative work, ex. festoons and Bou- 
krania on Arch at Beneventum. 

Hadrianic period. The Antinous type of statues and busts. Sarcophagi 
and classical scenes in relief. Good historical reliefs. Mausoleum of 
Hadrian. Tomb of Caecilia Metella. 

Antonine period. Reliefs on column of Antoninus Pius. Great Temple 
of the Sun at Baalbec, built by Antoninus. Roman cities in 
Northern Africa very flourishing. Tebursuk, Ain, Tunga, Dugga, 
Timgad, etc. 

Marcus Aurelius. Column and historical reliefs. 

Septimius Severus. Arch in Forum Romanum and gate in Forum 
Boarium. 

Roman Art declining after Antoninus Pius. Tombs of the Valerii (so- 
called Latin tombs), good stucco work. Roman Theatres of the 
Empire in Italy, Gaul, Greece, Asia Minor, and Africa. School of 
Sculptors at Aphrodisias in Asia Minor — Zenas and his son Zenas, 
Aristias and Papias. 

BRITAIN (under Rome) 

121 Hadrian visited Britain. Built wall from Tyne to Solway. 
150 Antoninus appointed Lollius Urbicus governor. Wall from Forth 
to Clyde. 



chap, xvi] SECOND CENTUR Y A.D. 69 

193 Government of Britain conferred on Albinus. 
197 Albinus assumed the Imperial Purple, led British soldiers to Gaul, 
was defeated near Lyons by Septimius Severus. 

PARTHIANS 

Subject to Rome under Trajan; his conquests given up by Hadrian. 
Chosroes recovered the throne. 
162 Vologases III. War with Rome. 166 Peace with Rome. Parthia 

declining. 
199 Septimius Severus invaded Parthia. 

Under EGYPT 

Trajan. Peace on the whole. Conflict between Jews and Greeks. 

Portrait at Dendera as Horus. 
Hadrian. Visited Egypt with Sabina. Names on Vocal Memnon. Antin- 

ous drowned. 
Antoninus Pius. Visited Alexandria. Riots between Jews and Greeks. 
Marcus Aurelius. Revolt of Egyptian soldiers, Avidus Cassius sent to 
subdue them. He intrigued with Faustina to take the crown himself. 
Commodus. Taxation heavy. Country impoverished. 
Pertinax. Name not on any buildings. 
Julianus. Not acknowledged, and Pescennius Niger, a Roman 

general in Syria, declared Emperor. 
Septimius Severus. Conquered Niger. Visited Egypt. Restored Vocal 
Memnon, which never sang again. 
Series of fine painted mummy portraits from Hawara near Memphis, 
dating from c. 100 to a.d. 250. Some on canvas, some thin water-colour 
with white of egg for medium, some melted coloured wax. Showing 
ancient Greek influence. 

Time of literary activity at Alexandria. 150 Ascetic idea growing, 
Gnostic and Christian. About end of century Catechetical School at 
Alexandria existed, which produced the learning of the Early Christian 
Church, and marks the first epoch of the rise of Christianity in Egypt. 
Sacred literature of Egypt, Persia, and Palestine, found in Alexandrian 
library, had prepared its way. 

INDIA 

125 Kanishka succeeded his father, Kadphises II, famous in Buddhist 
legend as a second Asoka. Development of later Buddhism deifying 
the founder, and rapid development of monasteries and stupas. 
Asvajohoska, the poet, " Life of Buddha." Nagarjuna, great 
apostle of Buddhism. Brahminism not abandoned. 

150 Huvishka. Buddhism continued to enjoy popular favour and 
royal patronage. 

185 Vasudiva. The Kurkan power declined, gradually restricted to 
Punjab. 
Rise of later Buddhism of this century reflected in the architecture 

and art. 



70 SECOND AND THIRD CENTURIES A.D. [chaps, xvi-xvii 

Hiuen Thsang, the Chinese traveller of the seventh century, says 
that during the reign of Kanishka, King of Gandhara, artists from Bactria 
were employed to paint in Buddhist monasteries, and that the convent of 
Serike was famous for mural painting. 

Amaravati, a Buddhist settlement in Madras. Important series of 
sculptures c. a.d. 170 representing early Indian life and legends of 
Buddha — they show Buddha receiving worship as a divinity for the first 
time. Indianized Western art superseded the simple direct naturalism 
of the Bharhut and Sanchi sculptures. The great Stupa of Amaravati 
has 1,200 figures on the outer rail. 

Andhra Dyn. powerful in Southern India. 

Early cave-paintings at Ajunta caves continued. 

CHINA (Han Dyn.) 

106 Hoti's infant son. Decline of Han Dyn. 106 Ganti, his brother. 

107 Hevanti. A good ruler. Decline of Han Dyn. rapid after his 
death. No ruler worthy of the name followed. 

LITERATURE 
Hsii-Shen died 120. Lexicographer. His work Shuo Wen, collection 

of 10,000 Chinese characters then in use, with explanatory notes. 

Oldest Chinese dictionary. Wang Tsan (177 to 217). Scholar and 

poet; and a few others. 
Indian Buddhist in China translated " The Lotus of the good Law " 

into Chinese at the close of this century. 
Buddhistic temples built. Stone sculptures on tombs in Shantung. 
C. 130 Earliest masterpiece showing influence of Greek art which 

had spread from Black Sea towards West Asia. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THIRD CENTURY A.D. 

Rome. — Britain under Rome. — Parthians. — Egypt under Rome. — Sassanids (New 
Kingdom of Persia.) — India. — China. — Japan. 

ROME 

Septimius Severus. Worship of Isis, Osiris, Mithras, and 

Bacchus, Judaism and Christianity all current. Died at York. 
211 Caracalla. "The common enemy of mankind." His brother 

Geta began to reign contemporaneously with him. Citizenship 

extended to all provinces. 
211 Geta, brother of Caracalla, murdered by him. 

217 Macrinus. 

218 Heliogabalus. High priest of Syrian sun-god, Elagabalus, at 
Emissa. 



chap, xvn] THIRD CENTURY A.D. 71 

222 Alexander Severus. Rome declining and attacked on all sides. 

Barbarians advancing. 
235 After he was murdered, a series of weak pretenders. All murdered 

or killed in fighting. 
253 Valerian. Defeated by Persian king. Said to have been stuffed 

and kept in a Persian temple. 
261 Gallienus. Barbarians advancing. Several pretenders calling 

themselves Emperors arose. Empire in pieces. 
268 Claudius II (Gothicus). An Illyrian. Empire again under one 

rule. Defeated the Goths. 
270 Aurelian. An Illyrian. Empire under one rule. Gave up Dacia 

to the Goths. 

Carinus on the throne after three unimportant men. The great fire 

in his reign destroyed much of Rome. 
280 [Diocletian. Elected by army; shared the rule with three others. 

He ruled Thrace, Egypt, and Asia. Severe Christian persecution 

under Diocletian. 

Maximian. He and Diocletian both called Augustus. He ruled 

Italy and Africa, and lived at Milan. 

Galerius. A General. Title, Caesar. Ruled the Danube. 

Constantine I (Chlorus). Title, Caesar. Ruled Gaul, Spain, and 

Britain. Died at York. 

Rome ranked as a provincial town. No longer seat of the Empire. 



21 



Greek 

Clemens Alexandrium, d. c. 217 
Hippolytus, d. c. 230. 
Origen, d. c. 253. 



Fathers of the Church 

Latin 

Tertullian, d. c. 220. 
Minucius Felix, d. c. 230. 
Cyprian, d. c. 258. 



LITERATURE. End of Pagan literati. 

Plotinus, b. 203 Porphyry, b. 223 Longinus Cassius, Secretary to 
Zenobia. 

ART AND BUILDINGS. Comparative scarcity. Arch of Septimius 
Severus. Gate in Forum Boarium. Baths of Caracalla and Diocletian. 
Palmyra and Baalbec Roman Hellenistic work. Mithraic Tauroc- 
tonous groups. Classic mythological Sarcophagi. Aurelian Wall. 
Diocletian's great palace at Spalato. Earliest Christian wall paintings. 
Catacombs of Calixtus for burial of Popes. Diocletian and Maxentius 
(son of Maximian) rebuilt the Basilica Julia, Forum Julium, Senate House, 
and Sacra Via, after the great fire of Carinus. 

Christian Church began to acquire bequests of landed property about 
250. Mithraism very strong in this century in Rome. 

BRITAIN (under Rome) 

208 Septimius Severus in Britain. 211 Died at York, leaving com- 
mand to Caracalla. 



72 THIRD CENTURY A.D. [chap, xvn 

287 Carausius. Roman Commander of the Fleet. Assumed Imperial 

purple. Assassinated by Allectus, who assumed it also. 
296 Constantine I (Chlorus). Regained Britain for Rome. Died at 
York. 

PARTHIANS 
Kings Volgeses II, III, IV, V. 226 Artabanus. War with Cara- 
calla. Submitted to Adashur the Persian, who came in during the war with 
Rome. 

End of Parthian kingdom (Arsacids). 

Under EGYPT (under Rome) 

Caracalla. Massacre at Alexandria. Colossal head at Koptos, with for- 
bidding expression. Cartouche in a quarry at Assouan. 

Heliogabalus. Disturbances at Alexandria between his troops and 
Egyptians. 

Alexander Severus. Egypt considered unimportant. Nothing note- 
worthy till Timongenis, an Egyptian, assisted Zenobia, Queen of 
Palmyra, against Rome. 

Claudius II. The Roman rule was limited almost to Alexandria. 

Diocletian. Revolt in Alexandria, which he quelled. Edict against 
Christians and persecution, called " Era of Martyrs." 

Paul the Hermit. First Christian monk. Fled from persecution to the 
desert and founded " The monks of the Thebaid." 

256 St. Anthony born. At his death, 365, the desert was studded with 
hermitages. 

SASSANIDS— New kingdom of Persia 

226 Artaxerxes (Adashur). New Dyn. Claimed descent from Cyrus 

and Darius. 
232 Armenia subject to Persia. Cause of constant wars with Rome. 
261 Odinathus. Fell under Gallienus. His son, Vaballatus, king in 

title only. 
266 Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, widow of Odinathus. War with 

Aurelian. Defeated. Lived subsequently in Rome. 
New Persian Architecture and Art of the Sassanids. Palaces at 
Ferozabad, Savistan, and Ctesiphon. Sculpture in high relief on face of 
cliffs, influenced by Assyrian, Greek, and Indian Art (226-625). 

Mani, founder of Manichaeism, b. 215, at Ecbatana, crucified 276. 

INDIA 

Third century a dark period in the history of India. Indications 
that the Persian Sassanids exercised influence there. Andhra Dyn. still 
powerful in the south. C. 200 Manava-dharma-shastra, or Code of Manu 
compiled; records system of Brahminism as it existed at this period. 
Gandhara sculptures at Loriyan-Tangai monastery, less Western influ- 
ence, more purely Indian type. 



chaps, xvii-xviii] THIRD AND FO URTH CENTURIES A.D. 73 

CHINA (end of Han Dyn.) 

220 Hienti. Last Han ruler. Retired into private life. End of great 

Han Dyn. after rule of 450 years. 
220-265 Period of the three kingdoms (1. Wei. 2. Shu. 3. Wu). 
265 Vouti Isemachu. New Dyn. of the later Isin restored unity to 

the Empire. 
290 Hweiti. Great bridge over River Hoangho. 

Centuries between 200 and 600 not very favourable to growth of 
Literature. Empire torn by civil war. Still the work was carried on. 
"The Seven Scholars," 196-221, all poets, and "The Seven Sages of the 
Bamboo Club," also poets. 

215-282 Huangfu Mi. Ploughman, scholar, and author. 289 Hsiin 
Hsii died. Edited the Bamboo Books just then discovered, containing 
ancient records and chronology from the Yellow Emperor Hwang-ti 2704- 
2595 b.c, to nearly the end of the Chow Dyn. 

251 Tsao Fu Hing. Said to be famous for Buddhistic pictures and 
Dragons; unauthenticated. 

JAPAN 

200-269 Empress Jingo. Wife of fourteenth Mikado, and real ruler be- 
fore and after his death. Said to have conquered the Korea. She and 
her baby Ojin, the young " God of War," and her great prime minister, 
Takenonchi, represented on Japanese fans, vases, and carvings, 
Takenonchi holding Ojin in his arms. Shinto temples at Osaka. 
Empress is worshipped now with three other gods at Osaka. 

270 Ojin, fifteenth Mikado. Worshipped as a god of war. 284 Eminent 
Chinese scholar, Wani, came to teach Ojin's son, who became a 
very learned man. Wani introduced writing and books. Writing 
spread and accounts were kept in regular order, and the errors of 
attributing immense length of life to the Mikados disappeared from 
this time. 
There is no department of Japanese national life and thought which does 

not bear traces of Chinese influence. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

FOURTH CENTURY A.D. 
Rome. — Egypt. — Britain. — Sassanids. — India. — China. — Japan. 

ROME 

305 Diocletian abdicated. Civil war between the Caesars and Augusti. 

308 Rebellion in Rome. Six Emperors. East Emperors — Galerius, 

Licinius, and Maximin. West Emperors — Maximian, Maxen- 



74 



FOURTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



[chap. XVIII 



tius, and Constantine, son of Chlorus. 313 Emperor Maxentius 

died. 

Constantine II (the Great), son of Chlorus, became sole emperor. 

Wife, Fausta. 

Seat of Empire removed to Constantinople. Built on site of 

Byzantium. Constantine adopted Christianity and made it the 

official religion; was baptized on his death-bed by an Arian bishop 

337- 

On the death of Constantine the Great the empire was divided be- 
tween his three sons, Constantine, Constans, and Constantius. 
After the death of his two brothers, Constantius (called Con- 
stantine III) became sole ruler. 355 He granted the title of Caesar 
to his cousin Julian, and died in 361. 

Julian, called the Apostate. Educated for pagan priesthood, and 
disliked Christianity, and tried to restore paganism. Was killed in 
the Persian wars. 

Jovian. Restored Christianity. Goths and Huns advancing. 
Empire divided into East and West with an emperor ruling in 
each. 



325 



33° 



337 



347 



361 



3 6 3 
364 



3 6 4 
375 
383 



WEST 
Valentinian I. 
Gratian and Valentinian II. 
Valentinian II. 



3 6 4 
379 



EAST 
Valens, killed by Goths. 
Theodosius I. Became a 
Christian; kept back the 
Goths; divided Armenia be- 
tween Rome and Persia. 
Again divided at his death 



392 Empire united under Theodosius I 

between his two sons. 
395 Honorius. Neglected Rome; 395 

lived at Ravenna. Visigoths 

and Goths advancing. Alaric 

kept back by Stilicho. 

End of the century Byzantine walls built at Olympia, converting the 
walls of the Temple of Zeus into a fortress for protection against the bar- 
barian invaders who harassed Greece. 



Arcadius at Constantinople. 
Huns ravaging Asia Minor. 
Visigoths rose under Alaric. 



GROWTH OF CHRISTIANITY IN ROME IN FOURTH 
CENTURY 

Mithraism disappeared. Worship of Egyptian deities forbidden. 
313 Edict allowing Christians to practise their cult. 
318 Arian controversy. Arius, a priest of Alexandria. 
325 Council of Nicaea. Pope Sylvester, Emperor Constantine, and 

Athanasius present. 
350 Orthodox Christianity took over the monastic system of the 

Egyptian desert. 
357 St. Basil founded his order. 365 St. Anthony died. The desert 

studded with hermitages. 
367 Porticus Deorum. Last building erected in Rome for pagan cult. 



chap, xvin] FOURTH CENTURY A.D. 75 

381 Great dispute between pagan Symmachus, and the Christian 
Ambrose, relating to the removal of the pagan statue of Victory. 

383 State support for pagan worship abolished. 

384 First Decretals published. 

391 Pagan sacrifice abolished, consequent rebellion for four days, and 
great pagan festivals held. 

395 Last Vestal Virgin. Fire extinguished. Christianity proclaimed 
the State religion by Theodosius I, but paganism still prevalent 
privately. He also finally suppressed the Olympic games in Greece. 

Principal Popes 



Cyril of Jerusalem 315 386 

Ambrose (founded St. 334 
Ambrogio at Milan) or 340 397 

Christian Writers 





B. 


D. 


Gregory of Nazianzen 


3 2 9 


389 


Basil 


33° 


379 


Gregory of Nyssen 


333 


394 


Chrysostom 


347 


401 


Cyril of Alexandria 


376 


444 



St. Silvester 313 335 

St. Liberio 335 366 
St. Damasus (St. Jerome 

his secretary) 366 384 

St. Siricius 384 398 

Fathers of the Church 

B. D. 

Epiphanes 303 

Eusebius c. 265 c. 340 

Athanasius c. 297 373 

BUILDINGS. St. Peter's and several other Basilica churches begun 
by Constantine, and filled with artistic and precious objects for worship. 

Arch of Constantine composed largely of spoils from earlier periods. 

Basilica of Constantine. After the death of Constantine a lull in 
building activity. 

Rise of Christian Art, compounded of pagan and Oriental elements. 

Rise of Byzantine Art after transference of seat of Empire to Con- 
stantinople, 330. 

Painting in catacombs and churches. Christian nimbus appeared, 
already used in Classical art. Frescoes in the house of SS. Giovanni e 
Paolo. 

Sarcophagi. Diptychs, ivory and wood. Carved ivory diptychs, 
known as the Consular diptych ( = double folded) used by Roman Con- 
suls and given as presents to great people, and as prizes in the games in 
the circus; historical and classical subjects. Created the type which lasted 
through the mediaeval era. Consular diptychs spread from the end of the 
fourth to the middle of the sixth century. 

327 Church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem founded by 
St. Helena, finished by Constantine 335. 

EGYPT (under Roman rule) 
307 St. Catherine of Alexandria martyred. 

Constantine the Great, 325-337, improved the condition of the 
country, but it was declining and impoverished. Struggle between Christian- 
ity and the former religion. Christianity became the recognized State 
religion. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria, b. 297, d. 373. Arian con- 



7 6 FOURTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xvm 

troversy. Hypatia, b. 350. Destruction of Serapis under Theodosius, 
392-395, who decreed the whole empire should become Christian. Spread 
of monasticism. Rise of Coptic (Christian) decorative art, a com- 
bination of Egyptian traditions and debased Hellenistic type. 
377 First incursion of Saracens. Bought off by a treaty. 

BRITAIN 
303-6 Christians suffered under Diocletian's persecutions. St. Alban 

martyred. 
306 Constantine I proclaimed Emperor. 
367 Picts and Scots appeared. Theodosius (father of Theodosius I) 

was sent to pacify Britain. 
388 Britain again appealed to Rome for help against Picts and Scots. 
313-41 1 Basilica at Silchester. England rapidly Christianized during 

this century. 

SASSANIDS 

303 N arses abdicated. 

310 Sapor II, greatest Sassaman monarch. War with Rome. 

390 Armenia divided between Rome and Persia by treaty, which lasted 

till the time of the Arabs. 
399 Yezdegerd (the Sinner) succeeded. Friendly to Rome. 

INDIA 

320 Chandragupta I, first paramount Emperor of India. Beginning 

of Gupta period, a new historical period. 
326 Samudragupta. One of the most accomplished and energetic 
of the Indian monarchs; dominions of nine kings of Northern 
India annexed, and other extensions of empire. He was a poet, 
musician, and patron of Sanskrit literature. 
C. 336 Indian embassy to Constantine reached Constantinople. 

357 Embassy to China. 361 Embassy to Rome. 
C. 375 Chandragupta II, his son. Extended the empire; extinguished 
- the Satraps. Good ruler. 
Rise of so-called Gupta style of Architecture. Monolithic pillars. 
Famous iron pillar of Delhi. 

ART. Between 350 and 550 second period of Ajunta cave frescoes- 
Buddha with drapery and nimbus. Approximately contemporary with the 
great railing at Amaravati, and best sculptures of Gandhara. 

Nakhon Vat, inKambodia, in the far East, was colonized in the fourth 
century, and the traditions of the Kashmir School conveyed there. A 
remarkable series of sculptures in the recently excavated great temple 
there, executed by the descendants of the colonizers from the fourth to the 
fourteenth century. The temple is larger than Borobudur, the walled 
inclosure measuring two-thirds of a mile on each of its four sides, all 
covered with sculptures illustrating the Mahabharata and Ramayana epics, 
and suggestive of the Amaravati sculptures. 



chap, xvm] FOURTH CENTURY A.D. 77 

320-480 Great revival of Brahminical Hinduism. Buddhism slowly 
decaying. Learning encouraged, Golden Age of Sanskrit litera- 
ture. 
C. 320 Vayu Purana, which contained the ancient legends of the 

Mahabharata doctrines of the Cosmic ages, Vishnu, Siva, etc. 
C. 300 Earliest scientific works on Astronomy. 

Kalidasa, poet and dramatist. A collection of fables existed of very 
ancient origin, some of which have ultimately found their way into Fon- 
taine's Fables. 

Ivories about the time of Constantine. 
Burmah, painting and wood-carving. 

CHINA 

307 Hwaiti, brother of Hweiti. Fell into the hands of Tartar invaders 

led by a Hun prince; also his brother Mingti in 317. 
317 Enfeebled later Isin rulers moved their capital to Nankin. Incom- 
petent rulers, period of disunion and wars. 
399 Fa-Hsein started his expedition to India to procure knowledge of 
Buddhism. 

ART. 364-405 Artist Ku K'ai-Chih working, painted Buddhist and 
Taoist subjects and portraits; illustrated "Admonitions of the instructress 
of the Palace," a work by Pang Chao, lady-in-waiting to the Empress, of 
the first century. Many details known of the artist's life. Some of his 
works still exist. 

From fourth to eighth century no tangible monument of pictorial 
art, though history records the names and works of a long roll of painters. 

LITERATURE. 365 Tao Chien, poet and musician; cultivated 
flowers, especially chrysanthemums. Kuo-Hsiang, philosopher, follower 
of Tao-Tzu. Kuo Po', scholar of great repute, learned in astronomy, 
divination, natural philosophy, and in geometry as applied to graves, which 
is universally practised in China now. 

JAPAN 

313 Nintoku, called the sage emperor; considerable skill developed in 
the use of bronze, iron, and gold for decorative purposes. Earliest 
bronze bells and arrow heads, anterior to known records, and date 
of manufacture uncertain. 



78 FIFTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xix 



CHAPTER XIX 

FIFTH CENTURY A.D. 

Roman Empire in the West. — Roman Empire in the East. — Egypt. — Sassanids. — 

Britain. — Ireland. — Spain. — Visigoths. — Venice. — Sicily. — France. — 

India. — China. — Japan. 

ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE WEST 

408 Goths advancing after the death of Stilicho. Honorius lived at 
Ravenna. 

410 Alaric, King of the Visigoths, took and sacked Rome. Entered by 
Porta Salaria; only remained three days. 

423 Valentinian III, seven years old, succeeded ; son of Galla Placidia 
(see Appendix XV), who really ruled. 

441 Empire at war with Vandals, Huns, and Persians; lost Africa to 
Genseric, the Vandal. 

452 Attila, the Hun, entered Italy; opposed by Pope Leo I. Emperor 
too weak. Leo saved Rome and her treasures. 

455 Maximus, emperor for two months. Eudoxia, his wife (see Appen- 
dix XVI), invited Genseric, the Vandal king, to come to Rome in 
revenge when she discovered Maximus had murdered her first 
husband, Valentinian III. She built S. Pietro in Vincoli in 
Rome. 

455 Avitus appointed by the Visigoths. Invasion of Genseric, who 
carried off Eudoxia. Her daughter, Eudocia, by her first husband 
Valentinian III, married Hunneric, son of Genseric. (See Appen- 
dix XVI) 

456 Ricimer deposed Avitus; made Majorian emperor. 

461 Ricimer deposed Majorian; made Libius Severus emperor. 
465 Ricimer deposed Severus, and ruled alone. 

467 Anthemius, emperor, opposed by Ricimer. Lupercalia again cele- 
brated at his accession. 

468 Great expedition against the Vandals. 

472 Olybrius opposed Ricimer. Death of Ricimer. Olybrius' wife, 
Placidia, was a daughter of Eudoxia, and an heiress of the family of 
Theodosius. 

473 Glycerius. Time of confusion. Ostrogoths attacked the empire. 

474 Julius Nepos. Time of confusion. 

475 Romulus Augustulus, last Emperor of Rome. Commencement 
of a new epoch. 

476 Odoacer took Rome; ruled as king over the Western Empire in 
Italy ; resided at Ravenna. Rome tranquil. Churches erected. Saint 
worship developing. 

477 Hunneric, son of Genseric, succeeded his father as king of the 
Vandals. 



CHAP. XIX] 



FIFTH CENTURY A.D. 



79 



487 Theodoric, the Ostrogoth, invaded Italy. 

493 Theodoric became King of Italy after murdering Odoacer, the one 
blot on his memory. Resided at Ravenna. 



408 

45° 
474 

491 



ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE EAST (at Constantinople) 

Theodosius II. Wars with Persia. Treaty with Attila. 

Marcian. 457 Leo I; 474 Leo II; Emperors. 

Zeno, son-in-law of Leo I, usurped the throne. Conferred title of 

Patrician on Odoacer. 

Anastasius I. 
Growth of the Eastern Church under the Patriarch of Constantinople. 
Dispute in the Eastern and Latin Church concerning the dual nature of 
Christ, the Logos, and the title "Theotokos," Mother of God. Con- 
troversy between Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, 428-431, and 
Cyril of Alexandria. Council of Ephesus, 431, to settle it. Summonses 
issued by Theodosius and Valentinian III. Title of Theotokos confirmed; 
Nestorius deposed. Pelagian controversy, 417. The Parthenon, 
Athens, converted into a Christian Church and dedicated to the Mother 
of God. Byzantine art rising and developing. 



POPES 



418 
422 

43 2 

440 



Boniface I. 
Celestine I. 
Sixtus III. 

Leo I, the Great, leader and 
defender of the people, 



changed the Lupercalia into 

the Candlemas. 
461-498 Five popes lived. 
498 Symmachus. 



St. Jerome (d. 420). St. Augustine (d. 430). St. Benedict (b. 480). 

LITERATURE. Poet Rutilius; poet Claudius. End of Latin Litera- 
ture. Procopius, the last Greek philosopher and historian. 

Art and Architecture. A break in art in Rome and Italy during 
the time of Attila. Reviving towards the end of the century. Theo- 
doric appointed officers to protect antiquities. Rise of Christian art was 
productive of some sculpture in Rome. Continual church building. Great 
activity in monastic schools of art for Church decoration. Ravenna, a 
great centre of Byzantine Christian art between 420-550, and Roman art 
was influenced by it. All Italian and Western art became influenced by 
Byzantine Eastern Christian elements for centuries, till the rise of 
the Renaissance and Gothic art gradually superseded them. Several fine 
churches at Salonica. Carved wooden doors of Sta Sabina, Rome, made 
by Greek workmen for Pope Sixtus III (432-440) show the earliest rude 
example of the Crucifixion. Ivory sculpture prospered, though marble 
sculpture declined. Diptychs used for Christian subjects. Italian 
ivory plaque in B.M. shows the earliest Crucifixion except the doors of 
Sta Sabina. Ivory Pyxes (little circular boxes) with pagan subjects; after- 
wards used in Christian liturgy to hold the Reservation of the Host. 
Most ancient Christian Pyx in Berlin shows the Greek beardless Christ. 



80 FIFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xix 

Frescoes in the Chapel of Sta Felicitas, last of the purely Latin style of 
catacomb frescoes. 

EGYPT (a Roman Province) 

Rome held on to Egypt on account of corn supply, but her grasp 
loosened and Persians invaded Egypt during the reign of Anastasius. 
Hypatia murdered in 415 during the time Cyril was Patriarch of Alex- 
andria. Series of Christological controversies with the Eastern Church. 
The Church in Egypt grew and flourished and gave much religious learning 
to the world. Coptic Christian art decorative, of Byzantine type. 

SASSANIDS 

420 Varanus V assisted to the throne by Rome. 421 War with Rome. 
422 Peace, toleration granted to Christians in Persia, and to Zoroastrians 

in Roman Empire. 
438 Yezdegerd II. Persecuted Jews and Christians. Defeated by 

White Huns. 
457 Peroz wrested the kingdom from Horning III. Persecuted Jews 

and Christians; favoured Nestorians when they were driven from 

Rome. 

BRITAIN 

410 Roman legions left, withdrawn by Emperor Honorius; Teutonic 

invasions followed, Angles, Saxons, and Jutes. 
444 Hengist and Horsa landed at Ebbsfleet. 
449 Foundation of English kingdom began in Kent. 

IRELAND 

St. Patrick commenced his mission in Ireland, exact date disputed. 
448 Foundation of See and Priory of Armagh and eight other Abbeys. 
465? Death of St. Patrick. 

Great numbers of Abbeys and Monasteries founded during fifth, 
sixth, and seventh centuries. Continental influence in Architecture 
strong from fifth century. 

SPAIN 
Invaded by Alaric, Vandals, and Suevi. 

VISIGOTHS 

414 Founded a kingdom in Spain and Gaul. 

VENICE 
C. 452 Founded by people fleeing from Attila. 

SICILY 

440 Invaded by Vandals under Genseric. 
490 Invaded by Goths. 



chap, xix] FIFTH CENTURY A.D. 81 

FRANCE 

406 Franks overran the whole of Gaul. 

458 Chilperic I, King of the Salian Franks. 

481 Chlodwig I (Clovis) founded the French monarchy. 511 Accepted 

Christianity. 

INDIA 

406-411 Fa Hsein, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim at the court of Chandra- 
gupta. His writings are the source of much information. He saw 
the palace of Asoka, its sculptures and inlays still standing. 
413 Kumaragupta I . Details of events not known. White Huns overran 

Indian plains after they were routed by Theodosius. 
455 Skandragupta. C. 480 End of his reign and end of Empire; his 
descendants continued the Dyn. in the Eastern Provinces. 
Great Literary period continued. 

Southern India. Andhra Dyn. ended beginning of fifth century, 
how or why unknown. 

400-500 Amaravati sculptures, inner rail, most splendid of its kind. 
Saints and nimbus. 

Between fifth and eighth Centuries, return to Brahminical cult, 
and consequent revival of architecture and new period of art lasting to 
eighteenth century. Important Temples in province of Orissa from 
fifth to thirteenth century. 

Frescoes on the Sigiri Rock, Ceylon, an offshoot of the great Ajunta 
cave frescoes. 

CHINA 

420 End of feeble later Isin Dyn., division between North and South 
China, "A house divided against itself." Song Dyn. founded by 
Lieonyu, and six other kingdoms set up. 

479 Tsi Dyn. followed, also times of war and violence. 

LITERATURE 

405 The Indian Kumarajwa, dictated Chinese commentaries on 
Buddhist Canon to 800 priests; he also wrote a Shastra, and translated 
the " Diamond Sutra," which may be called a National Classic, and 
which has done much to popularize Buddhism with the educated classes. 
Tan Yeh wrote a history of" the Han Dyn. Shen Yo, famous scholar, 
wrote histories, had a library of 20,000 volumes. 

JAPAN 

According to some authorities accurate chronology began in this 
century. 

412 Tukoyo, Mikado. 

457 Silkworms introduced from China and the industry encouraged by 
the Empress. 

G 



82 FIFTH AND SIXTH CENTURIES A.D. [chaps, xix-xx 

463 Emperor Yuriak. Said to have engaged the services of a skilled 
potter of Korea, and Keramic methods gradually spread. Korean 
Architects also employed. Art and Painting introduced in the same 
reign ; painting was introduced by a Chinese immigrant. 



CHAPTER XX 

SIXTH CENTURY A.D. 

Later Roman Empire and Emperors at Constantinople and Ravenna, and Gothic Kings 

of Italy. — Lombard Kings. — Venice. — Egypt. — Arabia. — England. — Ireland. — 

France (Early Frankish Kings). — India. — China. — Japan. 

LATER ROMAN EMPIRE AND EMPERORS AT CONSTANTIN- 
OPLE AND RAVENNA AND GOTHIC KINGS OF ITALY 

500 Theodoric, the Gothic king, ruled at Ravenna and visited Rome. 
Rule beneficent. 

518 Emperor Justin at Constantinople assisted by his nephew Jus- 
tinian. Theodoric sent Pope John I to Constantinople to demand 
the cessation of Arian persecutions, Theodoric being an Arian. 

526 Death of Theodoric, Regency of Amalasuntha, his learned 
and cultivated daughter, during the minority of Athalaric. 

527 Justinian. Rome again powerful for a time. Wife, Theodora. He 
closed the schools of Philosophy at Athens in 529. 

530 Witigis chosen King of the Goths. 

530 Belisarius subdued the Persians and ended the Vandal kingdom 

in Africa. 
535 He recovered Sicily from the Vandals, who then disappeared 

from history. 
537 Witigis laid siege to Rome, successfully defended by Belisarius. 
540 Slavonic invasion of Hellas. 
540-545 War with Chosroes I ( = Nushirvan) the Persian King. 542 

Great Plague in the East. 
543 War with the Goths. Rome taken by Totila 546; Rome de- 
serted for forty days — population had sunk to 500. 
547 Belisarius re-took Rome. 
549 Totila seized Rome again. Narses recovered it and restored the 

key to Justinian. 
552 Goths left Italy and are lost to history. 
554 Justin II. Whole of Italy recovered to the Empire, Narses having 

liberated the country from the barbarians. 
568 Lombards entered Italy under Alboin. 599 Peace between them 

and Rome. 

577 Slavs ravaged the whole of Hellas, Thessaly, and Macedonia. 

578 Tiberius, Emperor at Constantinople. 



chap, xx] SIXTH CENTUR Y A.D. 83 

582 Maurice, Emperor at Constantinople. From 585 to the end of 
his reign struggle and strife against advancing Avars, Slavs (Tartars), 
and Persians. Wars all the century. 

600 Rome at her lowest — exhausted after wars with barbarians, and 
the Emperors at Constantinople cared nothing for her. 

GREAT MEN. 

Cassiodorus, secretary to Theodoric. 

Boethius. Executed 543. 

St. Benedict died 543. In 529 he founded Monte Cassino. 

Procopius, Greek historian, c. 495-565. 

590 Pope Gregory the Great, d. 604 (Conti). Greatly increased the 
power of the Papacy, and the Pope became protector of Rome; 
founded the Sees of London and York. 

BUILDINGS AND ART IN ITALY 

C. 519 Basilica of St. Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna, erected by Theo- 
doric, and mosaics. 
526-547 St. Vitale, Ravenna, and mosaics. 

532-537 Sta Sophia, Constantinople, rebuilt by Justinian. Archi- 
tects, Anthemius and Isidore. 
536 Church of the Holy Apostles, Venice, destroyed; probably 

the prototype of the present San Marco. 
534-38 St. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, and mosaics. 
Zenith of first period of Byzantine Art. Illuminated books with 
miniatures. Eikons. 

Fine Ivory period. Church adopted ivory Diptychs for liturgical 
purposes, inscribing them with names of persons to be prayed for during 
Mass. Many classical diptychs used with subjects altered to suit Christian 
iconography. Large numbers of Latin, Byzantine, and Christian ivories of 
various kinds. Book covers. Caskets. Pyxes. Ivory chair of Ravenna. 

Early Christian frescoes in Rome. Sta Maria Antiqua epitomizes 
the history of fresco painting from this time to the eighth century. 
Chief surviving Sculpture in the form of sarcophagi. 

LOMBARD KINGS 

568 Alboin founded his kingdom in Italy. Clepho 573. 
575 Antharis. Wife, Theodolinda. She was baptized by Gregory 
the Great. She was a great church builder. 

591 Agilulf also married Theodolinda and was baptized. They built 
Monza Cathedral and received the Iron Crown from Gregory 
the Great, who also sent a fine ivory diptych to Theodolinda (now at 
Monza), in acknowledgment of her efforts to convert her subjects 
from Arianism to the orthodox faith. The Lombard kings encouraged 
the Fine Arts. 

586 Earliest example of Crucifixion in miniature in an illuminated 



84 SIXTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xx 

MS. of the Gospel written by a priest, Rabula, in a monastery in 
Mesopotamia (now in Florence). 

VENICE 

568 Lombard invasion caused refugees to settle in the Rivo Alto = 
Rialto, Malamocco and Torcello. 

EGYPT (A Roman Province) 

Justinian sent Narses to Philae to abolish pagan worship there. Narses 
carried the statues of the gods off to Constantinople. 550 He tried to 
force a Patriarch of his own choosing on the Church at Alexandria, and 
two Patriarchs arose in Egypt, the Greek or Melkite (appointed by the 
Emperor), who lived at Alexandria, and the Coptic or Monophysite 
(elected by the people), who lived at Nitria. Breach widened between the 
Greek and Coptic Churches, and party spirit ran high. Many theological 
dissensions. 

Art of writing and illuminating flourished greatly. Coptic decorative 
art. Tombstones, etc., Byzantine in type. 

ARABIA 

Consisted of local monarchies until the Mohammedan rule. 
576 Mohammed born in Mecca. 595 Married Khadija. 
579 Hornuz IV. Sassanid king. 

ENGLAND 

500 King Arthur of the round table supposed to be of this period. 

516 Gildas. Earliest English historian, d. 570. 

565 iEthelberht, King of Kent. Wife, Bertha, daughter of Sigebert, 

the Frankish king, a Christian. She erected St. Martin's Church 

at Canterbury. 
597 /Ethelberht converted by Augustine (Austin), who was made 

first Archbishop of Canterbury. He founded St. Paul's in 610. 
From the time that England become Anglo-Saxon, Literature, Law, 
and Art began to crystallize. Church embroidery executed. 

IRELAND 

521 St. Columba of Donegal born. Ireland already possessed famous 

men of learning who taught in the monasteries. 
563 St. Columba went to Scotland and founded Iona and several large 

monasteries in Scotland and England, which became centres of 

religion, learning, and art. 
St. Columbanus, b. 550, d. 615. Irish monk and missionary, laboured 
in France and Switzerland; founded monasteries at Bobbio (Italy), Luxeul 
(France), and with his follower St. Gall, the monastery of St. Gallen in 



chap, xx] SIXTH CENTURY A.D. 85 

Switzerland, which became a flourishing centre of art in later years. Ivories 
and miniatures in illuminated MSS. 



FRANCE (Early Frankish kings [Merovings]) 

511 Four sons of Clovis divided the kingdom. 

I. Theuderic (Austria). 

II. Chlodomer (Orleans). 

III. Childebert (Paris). 

IV. Chlothair. 553 He became king over all. 

573 Kingdom again divided among the sons of Chlothair. 

I. Sigebert (Austrasia). Wife, Brunhilda ; their daughter Bertha 
married ^Ethelberht, King of Kent. 

II. Charibert (Paris). 

III. Gundrun (Burgundy). 

IV. Chilperic (Soissons). Incessant fighting between them. Wars 
with the Lombards and Goths. 

596 Brunhilda, widow of Sigebert, regent. Constant fighting among 
the Merovings. 
Gregory of Tours. Historian of the Franks, b. c. 540, d. 594. 
" Historium Francorum " and " De Miraculis," etc. 



INDIA 
Northern India. 

The Sixth Century a period of confusion historically in Northern 
India. Barbarian invasions presenting an analogy to contemporary history 
of Europe. 
528 Naru Sinhagupta defeated the great White Hun chief, drove him 

into Kashmir. 
53 I_ 579 Panchatantra (fables) translated into Persian, a number of 

them ultimately found their way into La Fontaine's Fables. Game of 

Chess borrowed by Persians. 

Southern India. 

566 Chalukya king, Kirttivarma, came to the throne. Devotee of 
Vishnu. Hindu period. Brahminical cult reviving. Probably the 
Nestorians introduced Christianity during this century. 
597 Mangalisa, his brother. Increased the power of the Chalukyas. 

Thirty Rock Temples of Ellora, from sixth to ninth century. 

Treatise on Dramatic Art, oldest work on poetics, by Bharata 
(Sanskrit). 

Bhabhabhute, a celebrated dramatist (Sanskrit). Describes mural 
paintings in a palace at Ayodhya, illustrating the Ramayana; and "Picture 
Halls " in Buddhist monasteries. 



86 SIXTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xx 



CHINA 

502 End of Tsi Dyn. Three small Dyns. followed. Incessant in- 
ternal war. 
566 End of Liang Dyn. I.] War between these states and the 
580 End of Chin Dyn. II. J- great state Wei, which was governed by 
580 Soui Dyn. III. J a queen. 

Hsiao Yen, first Emperor of Liang Dyn., ruled as Vouti — a devout 
Buddhist. 

Hseih Tao Heng, a poet. 

Fu-I, 554-639. Presented a memorial asking that Buddhism might be 
abolished. 

Chang Sang, said to be engaged to paint Buddhist pictures by the 
devout monarch Wu-fi, 502. 

Wang-Chi, known as the "Five Bottle Scholar." Wrote good prose 
and verse in his lucid intervals. 

JAPAN 

552 Buddhism introduced by a priest sent from the Korea, bringing 
sculptures and idols with him. Met with violent opposition from 
Shintoists. A company of doctors, astronomers, and mathe- 
maticians also came from Korea. 

560 First sculptor mentioned in Japanese annals. A Chinese immi- 
grant making sacred wooden effigies for Buddhist temples. 

572 Metal images introduced by Emperor Bidatsu. 

577 First Buddhistic idols made by a Korean who was established 
in a temple by Emperor Bidatsu. 

584 Stone image of Buddhist deity Miroku brought from Korea, sup- 
posed to have served as a model for Japanese sculptors subsequently. 
Little more heard of stone sculpture, though painting and wood-carving 
were developing. 

586 First earthenware tiles by a Korean potter. 

586 Lacquering first mentioned in reign of Empress Yomu, and an 
official appointed as head of the Guild of Lacquerers. The art 
derived from China, but carried beyond the Chinese. 

593 Wood carvings. Empress Suiko recorded to have ordered three 
wooden images. Shita Tori said to have chiselled many. 

593 Empress Suiko. A fresh mission of Buddhist priests and nuns 

came from the Korea, and she adopted the cult. Chinese court 

fashions, literature, and etiquette introduced. Government remodelled 

on Chinese bureaucratic plan. 

Rise of Japanese Art for decorating the Buddhist temples. Some 

pictorial relics still remain. Tracing in B.M. 



chap, xxi] SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 87 



CHAPTER XXI 

SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Emperors of the later Roman Empire at Constantinople. — Principal Popes. — Lombard 

Kings. — Venice. — Arabia and the rise of Islam. — Armenia. — Jerusalem. — Egypt. 

— Frankish Kings and Mayors of the Palace. — England. — Ireland. — 

India. — Thibet. — China. — Japan. 

EMPERORS OF THE LATER ROMAN EMPIRE AT 
CONSTANTINOPLE 

602 Phocas seized the throne. A brutal ruffian. Disastrous Persian 

war. 
610 Heraclius overthrew Phocas. Persian war against Chosroes II the 

Persian. 
626 Siege of Constantinople by Chosroes II. 628 Heraclius victorious. 
635-638 Wax with Arabs (Saracens). 

641 Heraclius Constantinus. 641 Heraclionas. 

642 Constans II (also called Constantine IV). Some struggles with the 
Lombards. Constans visited Rome, and took away treasure to adorn 
Constantinople. 

668 Constantine IV or V, Progonalus. 

685 Justinian II. War with Saracens, who conquered. After his fall 

twenty-two years of anarchy and disasters for the Empire. 
695 Leontius. Final loss of Carthage to the Saracens. 
698 Tiberius Apsincarus. 

PRINCIPAL POPES 

Gregory the Great died 604, having greatly elevated the Papacy 
and saved Rome when pressed by Lombards. 
607 Boniface IV. Lover of religious art. Church builder. Dedicated 

the Pantheon for Christian worship. Died 615. 
649 Martin I. Monothelite controversy. Exiled by Constans II to 
Chersonesus in the Crimea. Died 655. 
Influx of Greeks into Rome early in the century from Byzantine 
domains influenced the rise of Christian Art, frescoes, mosaics, etc. 

Frescoes in St. Clemente lower church and Sta Maria Antiqua, Rome, 
under Martin I. 

Earliest Crucifixion scene in fresco in the catacomb of St. Valentine, 
now nearly obliterated. 

Decay of Classical Art and letters. Heracliad, an epic poem on 
the wars of Heraclius, the only production of note. Rise of cult of 
Icons, which led to the great iconoclastic controversy of the eighth 
century. 



88 SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxi 



LOMBARD KINGS 

615 Adaloald. Regency of Theodolinda, his mother. 
625 Arioald married Gundeberga, daughter of Theodolinda. Church 
building. 

636 Rotharis married Gundeberga, widow of Arioald. Code of laws. 
Church building. 

652 Rodoal. Time of trouble for the Lombards. 

653 Aribert I, nephew of Theodolinda. Time of peace. Church 
building. 

661 Godebert and Belthari elected by Aribert I. Their joint reign 

caused civil war. 
692 Grimoald usurper. Struggle with Emperor Constans II. 
671 Belthari re-established. Crowned at Pavia. Sole monarch of 

Lombards. Church building. 
688 Cunibert. Married Ermilind, an Anglo-Saxon. 

All the Lombard kings encouraged the fine Arts and Architecture. 

Comacine Master Masons appeared for the first time in a code of 
Rotharis, where they are shown with full and unlimited powers to make 
contracts and sub-contracts for building works. They were in existence 
before, and were called in by Theodolinda, Antharis, and Agilulf. From 
this time they formed a very important Guild. 

Earliest mention of the Romance tongue, 659. 

Ravenna declined during the seventh and eighth centuries. 

VENICE 

697 Paolo Anafesta made first Doge and invested with sovereign 
powers. Resided at Torcello. Torcello Cathedral founded. 

ARABIA AND RISE OF ISLAM 

622 The Hegira. Flight? of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina, from 
which the Moslem chronology dates. His wars began with Rome 
(Heraclius) and Persia (Chosroes). 

630 Mecca taken by Mohammed, subsequent spread of Islamism. 

632 Death of Mohammed. Abu Behr succeeded as first Caliph. 
Wars with Rome and Persia. 634 Koran published. 

637 Antioch and Jerusalem fell under Omar (second Caliph) and his 
Saracens. 

640 Caliph Omar attacked and conquered Egypt. 

643 Caliph Omar murdered. Othman, son-in-law of Mohammed, suc- 
ceeded as third Caliph. 

656 Caliph AH. 661 He was murdered. Last of the four orthodox 
caliphs. 

661 Omayyad Caliphate commenced. Muavid sole master of the 
Mohammedan Empire. Persia became part of it, and the Sassanid 
Empire ended. Name " Saracen " used in mediaeval times for the 
various tribes who together formed the Mohammedan Empire. 






chap, xxi] SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 89 

ARMENIA 

623-839 Armenia scene of incessant struggles between Greeks and 
Mohammedans, and its own native princes. 

JERUSALEM 

614 Fell into the hands of the Persian king, Chosroes II. Christians 

well treated. 
614 Patriarch Modestus rebuilt the churches and buildings of the Holy 

Sepulchre. 

628 Retaken by the Emperor Heraclius. 

637 Caliph Omar took possession. The mosques El Aksa and Omar built. 

EGYPT 

610 Both Patriarchs, the Coptic and the Greek, took part in the 
struggle between Phocas and Heraclius, the latter recognized in 
Egypt as Emperor. 

614 The Persians masters for ten years. 

629 Revolt of Arabs against Persians, and Heraclius regained the power 
for a short time. 

639 Arab invasion under Amr, leader of the Mohammedan troops. 

641 Egypt came under the Moslem control and Arabs spread over the 
country. 

642 Mosque of Amr built at Fostat, ancient Cairo. 

FRANKISH KINGS AND GREAT MAYORS OF THE PALACE 

Continued righting among the Merovingians. 

612 Wars of Theudebert and Theuderich, brothers. 

614 Brunhilda murdered. Chlothair II. Decline and decay of Mero- 
vingians. 

628 Dagobert I, died 633. Long minority of his sons, Sigebert III 
and Chloderich II, and final ruin of the Merovingians and rise of 
the power of the Karlings. Pepin the Elder, the Mayor of the 
Palace, died 639. 

658 Mayor Grimuald usurped supreme power. 

660-681 Mayor Elbroin. A bad tyrant. 

687 Pepin II, the younger, of Heristale, Mayor, became real monarch 
of the Frankish Empire. Assumed title of Dux Francorum. 
Conversion of many Germans to Christianity under his rule, assisted 

by Irish and English missionaries. 

ENGLAND. (So-called Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy) 

Witenagemot, National Council or Parliament, originally held in each 
kingdom. Power continually passing from one kingdom to another. 
617 Edwin, King of Northumberland. 627 Converted to Christianity 

by Paulinus, first Bishop of York. He began to build a basilica at 

York. 



9o SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxi 

633 Edwin slain by Penda of Mercia. 

635 Oswald defeated Caedwallon the West Saxon king. 642 Oswald 
slain by Penda. 655 Penda slain by Northumbrians." 

636 Aedan settled at Lindisfarne (Holy Isle). Cuthbert at Montrose. 
672 Boeda, the venerable Bede, born. 

Rise of Monasteries in Northumberland. Struggle of Christianity 
against the old gods Woden, Thor, etc. End of century, England a 
Christian country. Sent missionaries to Germany. Two centres of Christian 
authority in England, Celtic and Roman. Struggle between them. It was 
settled in favour of Rome on the strength of the arguments of Wilfrid, 
the champion of the Roman authority, at an assembly in 664 held at 
Whitby to decide the matter. 674 Benedict Biscop, of Monkswear- 
mouth, sent abroad for foreign workmen to build his church, " who could 
build in the Roman manner," i.e., the round arched style used in Lombardy 
and Rome. Consequent introduction of Lombardic or Romanesque in- 
fluence into Anglo-Saxon architecture. Many churches were founded. 
Some Anglo-Saxon work still exists in c. 173 edifices; ex. the crypt of 
Ripon Cathedral. Also some stone sculpture. Very little and of rude form 
had been used previously. 

Crosses at Bewcastle and Ruthwell, fine Celtic and Lombardic 
sculpture, and runic inscriptions. They have been placed much later by 
Rivoira. 

JLindisfarne became a centre for the production of fine illuminated 
MSS. of a Celtic type. 

Weaving and Embroidery practised by ladies of the court and 
nuns. 



IRELAND 

Book of Kells. The culminating point of Irish Celtic Art. Very 

fine work, and beautiful, intricate, interlacing patterns. 

Earliest Irish Sepulchral monuments, in the form of rude pillar 
stones, a cross incised in a circle on many. At Clonmacnoise 179 sepulchral 
cross-slabs exist, varying in date from 628 to 1273, advancing in skill of 
execution. 



INDIA 
North 

606 Harsha, Emperor of Northern India, also known as Sitaditya. An 
accomplished monarch. Indian history regained some unity. He 
attempted unsuccessfully to conquer the South. Repulsed by 
Pulikesin II, lord paramount of the Deccan. Decay of Bud- 
dhism, great revival of Brahminism, the so-called Neo-Hinduism 
movement, with cult of sacred rivers, especially the Ganges and 
Jumna; and a vast popular literature arose based on the Maha- 
bharata and Ramayana epics. 

648 Death of Harsha, last paramount sovereign of Northern India. 



chap, xxi] SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 91 

Throne usurped by one of his Brahmin ministers; the land became 
a prey to anarchy and famine. 

South. 

609 Pulikesin II, Chalukya Dyn., sovereign in Southern India. In- 
vaded and conquered many territories. 615 Appointed his brother, 
Vishnuvardhana, as his assistant. 

615 Vishnuvardhana established himself as independent sovereign, 
and two distinct Dyns. of Chalukyas arose. 

ART AND BUILDINGS. 

At Bhubanesvara in Orissa, large group of five or six hundred 
temples, Jain and Hindu, begun; the best belong to the seventh and 
eight centuries ; continued to the twelfth century. 

Cave Temples of Ellora and Elephanta, the finest period of 
Hindu sculpture, from sixth to eighth century, when Hinduism triumphed 
over Buddhism, and before Hindustan succumbed to the Mohammedan 
invasion. The art traditions by which these wonderful Hindu legends 
were expressed were inherited from the Buddhist sculptures of Ellora 
and Elephanta. 

Mamallapuram raths or seven pagodas, early Dravidian architec- 
ture, probably belong to this century. Term Dravidian is applied to 
the people speaking Tamil, Malayalam, Telugu, and Kanarese. Their 
temples are numerous, and include some of the very elaborate Indian work 
later on. 

Ajunta Caves (south-west). Third and most important series of 
frescoes, executed between 550 and 650, have been considered better 
than anything in Europe before Orcagna or Fiesole. One, representing 
Persian envoys at the court of Pulikesin about 625, dates some of the 
most important. 

The Calcutta Museum has some remarkable painted banners for 
Buddhist temples in the style of the seventh century. 

LITERATURE. Hinen Tsiang, the Chinese " Master of Laws," 
visited India 643, was invited to the court of Harsha, stayed years in 
India collecting Buddhist MSS. and sacred images; his accounts give 
much information about India. I-Tsing, another Buddhist Chinese 
pilgrim, visited India 671-695; his accounts also give much information. 

Dandin's "Mirror of Poetry" (Sanskrit), dealing with styles of com- 
position and ten kinds of blemishes to be avoided. 

THIBET 

Emperor of Thibet converted to Buddhism. 

Lamas established in Thibet. Thibetan painting reflects the 
features of the Lamaist religion. 

Indian Buddhistic art traditions in painting and wood-carving 
introduced from Nepal into Thibet by King Srong-tsan-gam-po. 



92 SE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxi 



CHINA (T'ang Era) 

618 T'ang Dyn. commenced a brilliant epoch of wealth, culture, and 
refinement; literature and art flourished. Liyuen, first king, pro- 
claimed himself Emperor under title of Kaotsou. Classed among 
the most capable rulers of China. 

636 He abdicated in favour of his son, a great general, Lichimin, who 
took the name Taitsong. A really great man, re-united China. 
His wife, Changsunchi, an able and good woman, patron of letters, 
founded an Imperial library and college. After her death the good 
fortune of Taitsong declined. She assisted and advised the Emperor, 
and contributed to his treatise, the " Golden Mirror." 

649 Kaotsong. Also a great ruler. Married one of his father's widows, 
the Empress Wou. She practically ruled and retained the power 
after his death. 

683 Kaotsong died. Empress Wou ruled till 704. 

Arabs introduced the Mohammedan religion into China under 

Taitsong. 

ART. Second half of the seventh century. China, under the T'angs, 
had intimate relations with India. Indo-Grecian inspiration in art; also 
winged steeds and griffins of Assyria in decoration. 

Painting previous to the T'ang Dyn. traditional. 

T'ang Era (618 to 905) of painting possessed artists of great power 
and originality — three hundred painters have left their names and records, 
most of their works have disappeared. The great Wu-Tao-tzu (born 685) 
painted his " Death of Buddha" in 742, known only by copies; his name 
in Japan, Godoshi. " Paradise of the West," good sacred picture, 
with donors at the lower part, attributed to seventh century, found by Stein 
in cave temple at " Halls of thousand Buddhas," Tun-huang. 

From the seventh to the thirteenth century, Chinese painting stood 
first in the world. 

LITERATURE. Many poets and scholars. A complete collection of 
the poetry of the T'ang Dyn. (618-905), published in 1707, contains 48,900 
poems of all kinds, filling thirty good sized books. 

JAPAN 

Government remodelled on Chinese bureaucratic plan, and Chinese 
calendar used. Custom arose for young Japanese students to go to China 
to study. 

604 Shotoku Iaishu, son of Empress Suiko. He assisted her in the 
government, adopted Buddhism, and was its real founder in Japan; 
his name means " Great teacher of the Divine Virtue." His portraits, 
probably contemporary, still exist. At his death forty-six Buddhist 
temples, 816 priests, and 1,385 monks and nuns existed, but the 
nation was not converted for nearly one hundred years. Shotoku 



chap, xxi] SEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 93 

had large copper images made for the officers of his government. 
Died 622. The Empress died 628. 

645 Rise of the Fujiwara family, who monopolized nearly all the 
important government offices till 1050. Wistaria their family crest. 

646 Regulation forbidding burial of living retainers still necessary. 
668-71 First establishment of a school. 

694 Silver money used. 

697 University regularly organized; history, classics (Chinese), law, 
and painting taught. 

ART, rising with the introduction of Buddhism in sixth or seventh 
century, soon flourished, deriving its main features from Chinese, but 
developing a distinct Japanese character. 
605 First Bronze idol, attributed to a wood-carver, Tor-Busshi, 

sixteen feet high, and two figures in wood which still exist. 
670-749 Monk Giogi, a Korean by birth, nominal author of some 
important wood-carvings still in existence. 

From the end of this century delicate metal Buddhistic reliquaries. 

Lacquering progressed and took a high place among the arts. 
Manufacture of black and red lacquer began under Temmu about 630. 

Aguchi, sculptor of 1,000 Buddhistic images for the Emperor. 

Kotoku. No works existing. 

Miyochin, a family of metal workers, their names known from 640 to 
1500 as armourers, etc. 

Japanese Art progressing and approaching the Chinese. 

The Fan, previously flat, made to fold, an important item in Japanese 
civilization. 

LITERATURE rising after introduction of Buddhism. From first 
century onwards a large number of Sanskrit Buddhist books were 
translated into Chinese, and made their way into Japan after a.d. 600, 
when Buddhism was introduced from Korea. 

Oldest examples of the Tanka, or short poems, in this century or a 
little earlier; the most universal and characteristic form of Japanese 
poetry. Consists of five phrases in lines of 5-7-5-7-7 syllables (thirty-one 
syllables in all). Used continuously and copiously ever since. Also the 
Nega-Uta long poems, 5-7-5-7-7-7 syllables, and no limit of length; not 
so popular, and soon neglected. 
673 Kojiki (record of ancient things), compiled at the order of the 

Emperor Temmu, was begun, the first Japanese written book. 

Contains the early traditions and myths which are the basis of the 

Shinto religion, acquiring a more historical character as it proceeds. 

Nikongi, a contemporary work, is a mixture of Chinese and Japanese 

languages. 



94 EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxii 



CHAPTER XXII 

EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. 

Emperors at Constantinople. — Principal Popes. — Lombard Kings. — Venice. — Frankish 

Kings and Mayors. — Saracens. — Spain. — England. — Scotland. — Vikings. — 

India. — Java. —China. — Japan. 

EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE 

705 Justinian II restored. A brutal tyrant. 

711 Philippicus. Feeble monarch. Time of anarchy and contest 
with the Saracens under Caliphs. 

713 Artemius Anastasius. Feeble monarch; anarchy. Saracen war 
under Caliphs. 

715 Theodosius III abdicated. Empire disorganized, threatened with 
speedy ruin. Saracen war under Caliphs. 

717 Leo III, the Isaurian. Strong ruler, consolidated and reorgan- 
ized the Eastern Roman Empire, now called the Byzantine 
Empire. Crusade against Icons and Image worship which had 
risen under Heraclius. Conflict with Pope Gregory II. War with 
Saracens. Leo defeated them, hitherto they had been victorious. 

740 Constantine V (or VI) Copronymus, son of Leo III, also 
an Iconoclast. 754 Council of Constantinople, all images of Christ 
and Saints condemned. War with Saracens and Bulgarians. 

745 Leo IV the Khazar. He married Irene, daughter of the Khan of 
the Khazars. War with Saracens. 

780 Constantine VI (or VII). Irene his mother, regent. She restored 
image worship. 

797 Irene dethroned Constantine and put his eyes out, andhewas immured 
in a monastery. Her rule disastrous at home and abroad. The 
Empire torn by religious dissensions. War with the Saracens 
continued. 

PRINCIPAL POPES 

715 Gregory II. Triumphed over Leo the Isaurian, and Rome en- 
joyed political independence under the guidance of the Pope; con- 
sequent freeing of the Roman Church from Byzantine rule. He 
rebuilt Monte Cassino. 

733 Gregory III. Election confirmed by Leo III. Last time a Byzan- 
tine Emperor was asked to confirm a Pope's election. 

772 Hadrian I. Second Council of Nicaea to discuss image worship. 
His epitaph at St. Peter's, composed by Charles the Great, is a great 
papal monument commemorating the union of the Monarch with 
the Church. 

795 Pope Leo III. Crowned Charles the Great 25th December 800. 



chap, xxn] EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. 95 

ART, ARCHITECTURE, AND SCULPTURE 
726 Edict of Emperor Leo III (Isaurian), gave a blow to Byzantine 
art and brought about the decadence of the ninth and tenth cen- 
turies, especially at Constantinople, which never came again to the 
front as an art centre. 
Art at a low point in consequence of the iconoclastic controversy 
during the time of Irene. A few works executed. Some ivory diptychs. 

Restoration of Sta. Maria Antiqua in Rome and frescoes. Also frescoes in 
St. Clemente, lower Church. The writings of the Anonymous of Einsiedeln, 
end of eighth and beginning of ninth century, give a description of Rome 
and the monuments and inscriptions as they appeared at the time ; followed 
by other topographical literature. 
John Damascenus, one of the last Greek Fathers of the Church. 

LOMBARD KINGS 

700 Luitbert. Regent, Count Ansprand. 

701 Rajinbert. Usurper. 

702 Aribert II, his son. Murdered Luitbert. 

712 Ansprand, former regent, invaded and took Lombardy. 

712 Luitprand. Able and energetic ruler, assisted to maintain peace 
in Italy. Gained possession of Ravenna, the city soon retaken by the 
Byzantine troops. 

744 Hildebrand. Vicious and incompetent. Deposed. 

744 Ratchis, Duke of Friuli. Attacked Perugia. Pope Zacharias in- 
duced him to lay down his arms and become a monk. 

755 Aristulf. Conquered Ravenna. Menaced Rome. Pope Stephen 
invited Pepin to come to save Rome. 

756 Desiderius. Pepin abandoned the affairs of Italy. Desiderius 
quarrelled with Pope Hadrian who (772) invited Charles the Great 
to Italy. He defeated Desiderius. End of Lombard kingdom. 

ARCHITECTURE AND THE FINE ARTS encouraged. Luitprand 
a great church builder. His schedule to the Comacine master masons pro- 
vides many data for the history of architecture. Small church of Bene- 
dictine Monastery at Cividale built by a Lombard Princess, stucco relief 
figures. Reliefs also on an altar now in St. Martin's Church, Cividale. 

VENICE 

716 Paolo Anafesta died. First Doge of Venice whose name is known. 
Seat of government at Torcello. 

FRANKISH KINGS AND MAYORS 
714 Pepin, the younger (Mayor) died. During his rule four obscure 

kings, Theuderich III, Chloderich III, Childebert III and 

Dagobert III. Decay of the last effete Merovings. Rise of Pepin's 

son, Charles Martel. 
714-720. Charles Martel. Wars with Saracens. 719 He became sole 

monarch. 



96 EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxn 

, t 

741 Charles died. Pepin the Short, Mayor of Neustria. Carloman, 

Mayor of Austrasia. 
752 Pepin the Short, sole monarch. War with the Lombards. Pope 

Stephen invited him to Italy to save Rome from Aristulf. 
755 Pepin conquered the Lombards and gave the Exarchate to the 

Pope, thus laying the foundation of the temporal power of the 

Papacy. 
768 Charles (the Great) became ruler with his younger brother Carloman, 

who died 771. 
772 Charles the Great invited by Pope Hadrian to assist in saving 

Rome from Desiderius. 
800 Charles the Great crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III. The 

Holy Roman Empire founded. 
Carolingian ecclesiastical art and architecture rose at the end of eighth 
century, developed by the fusion of races in Italy and Germany, and the 
Franks. 

SARACENS 
705 Climax of Mohammedan power. Christian Copts of Egypt per- 
secuted. 

710 Saracens (Moors) landed in Spain, ending the Visigoth kingdom 
there, which had existed since a.d. 531, under twenty-three kings. 

732 Saracens defeated by Charles Martel at Poictiers. Western Chris- 
tendom freed from danger of the Saracens. 
750 Savage Civil Wars among Saracens. Fall of Omayyad 

Caliphs, succeeded by Abbasid Caliphs. 
755 Saracen Empire divided, never again joined, various sects arose 
and Caliphs in Spain and Egypt. Orthodox followers acknowledged 
the Caliph in Bagdad. 
786 Haroun-al-Raschid. Caliph at Bagdad. The Empire broke into 
a number of separate States at his death. 
Arab Art flourishing, and Arab civilization at its zenith. 
Mosque at Cordova, the so-called " Grammar of Moorish Art." A 
second only to Mecca in holiness. Interior enlarged twice during tenth 
century. 

Mosque at Medina. 

SPAIN 

711 Tarik, a general of Musa, the Mohammedan governor of Western 
Africa landed at Algeciras, defeated the Visigothic king, and over- 
turned his kingdom. 

712 Moorish subjugation of Spain completed by Musa, but some portions 
of the country were never conquered by Saracens, i.e., the regions of 
the Pyrenees between Aragon and Navarre, the Asturias, Biscay, and 
the northern portion of Galicia. 

713 Theodomir the Visigoth established a semi-independent kingdom 
in Murcia by treaty with the Moors. 

718 Pelayo defeated the Moors in Asturias. 



chap, xxn] EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. 97 

739 Alfonso I reigned as King of Asturias and Leon, which remained 

an independent kingdom till 1230. 
756 Cordova made the capital of the Moorish kingdom by Abderrah- 

man, founder of the Omayyad Dyn. 

ARCHITECTURE. Christian church of Oviedo built by Friula I 
(757-768), King of Asturias and Leon. Oviedo the capital of the 
Christian kingdom for 200 years. Cordova (786); the great Mosque 
begun on the site of the Visigoth church of St. Vincent (the most noble 
and the largest monument of Moorish religious architecture in Spain, and 
second in size among the mosques of Islam) completed in a little more 
than 200 years. 

ENGLAND 

Kingdoms still passing from one to another. 
713 ./Ethelbald, King of Mercia, conquered Wessex. 752 Wessex re- 
covered freedom. 
758-794 Offa, King of Mercia, subdued Kent. 
789 Danes first landed on the coast of Dorsetshire, and soon after made 

inroads in Northumberland. 
794 Cenwulf, King of Mercia. 

800 Ecgberht, King of Wessex, subsequently brought all England under 
his power. 

Winifrith, West Saxon monk, started in 715 on his mission to Germany, 
called "the Apostle of Germany," later took the name of Boniface. Made 
Bishop of Mainz by Gregory II. 

Alcuin, Northumbrian scholar and MS. writer, assisted Charles the 
Great (796-804) to bring about the great revival of letters, and the art 
of illuminating called the " Anglo-Carolingian " school. He was Abbot of 
the Benedictine monastery at Tours, and there superintended the produc- 
tion of a large number of richly illuminated MSS. (B.M.). The Vulgate 
revised by Alcuin with miniatures, showing influence of various schools; 
initial letters, and conventional ornaments, northern influence, Celtic inter- 
lacing patterns. 

Period of Anglo-Saxon Architecture, often showing Italian in- 
fluence. Monks and nuns illuminated and embroidered, and these 
arts attained a high level of excellence. Some carved ivories. The whale- 
bone casket with scenes from sagas, Scripture and Roman legends, and a 
runic inscription, probably belongs to this century. 

SCOTLAND 

706 Traditional Pictish king, Brude. 

731-761 Supremacy of Angus Macfergus, greatest Pictish king. 

787 Arrival of Vikings; invasion continued till 872. 



789 Petty raid on Wareham. 
793 Sacked Lindisfarne. 
795 In Ireland. 



VIKINGS (early raids) 



799 Raid in Aquitaine (Frankish 
kingdom). 



98 EIGHTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxii 

INDIA 
Rise of the Rajputs, or " Sons of kings "; their origin disputed. Stone 
temples of Northern India, eighth and ninth centuries. Previously of 
brick or wood, with two or three exceptions in the sixth and seventh 
centuries. 

760 End of Western Chalukya Dyn. It revived after two cen- 
turies. 

Eastern Chalukya Dyn. consolidated. Brahminism estab- 
lished. Buddhism ceased to be the national religion about the 
eighth century ; and later, Jainism was established in the West, and 
Vishnuism in the East. 
712 Arab conquest of Sindh; hold of the Caliphs maintained till 871. 
C. 720 Parsees emigrated to Bombay from Persia after the Saracens 
had terminated the Sassanid kingdom. 
Sankara, or Sankar-acharya, great Hindu reformer, Apostle of the 
Vedanta, largely associated with the revival of Brahminism and regulation 
of Buddhism. May have influenced the decline in fine art, as he was 
opposed to principle of image worship. His name in Sanskrit, Bhumarita 
Bhatta = Champion of Brahminism. 

About the time of Sankar-acharya, culminating point of Sanskrit 
literature. 

JAVA 
603 Java colonized by India, and Indian art introduced. 
750 Wonderful shrine of Borobudur, a magnificent monument of 
Indian Buddhist art. Its decoration spread over several centuries, 
belonging to different periods of artistic skill; it has three sculptured 
pilgrim processions, 120 scenes from the life of Buddha, and 120 
scenes from legends of his previous births. 
800 A Superb Dhyam Buddha Statue. 

CHINA (T'ang Dyn.), 618-905 

712 Ming-Ti reigned forty-four years, lapsed from the height of a wise 
and virtuous ruler to the depths of a corrupt and sensual debauchee. 
Founded the celebrated Hanlin College, known as the " Pear 
Garden," and the Pekin Gazette, the oldest periodical in the world, 
both still existing. But finally he brought his family and the Chinese 
Empire to the verge of ruin. 

756 Soutsong, his son. Retrieved the fortune of the family somewhat. 

763 Empire divided between his rivals : constant war between them. 

780 Tetsong, his great adviser. General Kuo Tsiy induced him to 
issue an edict reproving superstitious auguries from dreams and 
accidents. A patron of the Nestorian Christians. 
TANG DYN. ART. Six hundred painters' names recorded during the 

period 618-905. 

685 Wu-Taotzu, greatest of early Butsu-ye artists, one of the famous 

to painters of China. His descendants, painters chiefly of Buddhistic 

762 pictures, traced to the fifteenth century. 



chap, xxi i] EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. 99 

699-760 Wang Wei (Oi, in Japan). Landscape painter and poet, "his 
pictures are poems, and poems are pictures." 

Han Kan (Kankan, in Japan). Chiefly painted horses. Pupil of 
Wang Wei. 

Li Tsieu (Rizenin, in Japan). Figures and horses. 
Li Chung Ho (Richiuwa, in Japan), his son. Figures and horses. 
Yuen Ying (Gengei, in Japan). Minutely drawn insect life. 
Kiang Tao-Yin (Keodoin, in Japan). Landscapes. 

LITERATURE. 

Han-Wen-Kung, great poet, philosopher, and statesman, 768-824. 
Canonized as a "Prince of Literature." A great patriot, and a noble 
character. 

Po Chii-i, a great poet. Several other minor poets in this century. 

JAPAN (Nara period and beginning of Heian period) 

710 Empress Gemmyo. Fixed the royal residence at Nara, where 
it remained for seventy-five years, through seven reigns, known as 
the " Nara period." Residence previously changed with accession of 
the monarch. 
Empress Gensho, her daughter. 

724 Emperor Shomu, nephew of Gemmyo. 

Empress Koken, his daughter. Disinherited her son and 
abdicated in favour of Emperor Junjin. She dethroned him, and 
resumed government as Empress Koben-Shotoku. 
Emperor Konin, grandson of Emperor Tenji. 

794 Emperor Kwammu (a Fujiwara). Removed the capital from 
Nara to Kioto, and the Heian period commenced. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART flourished at Nara, a wave of pro- 
gress and learning. Great and gorgeous Buddhist and Shinto temples. 
The Emperor Shomu ordered the colossal figure of Buddha, fifty-three 
feet high, known as the Nara Dai Butsu, to be cast; he also founded 
the eastern Golden Hall at Nara, in gratitude for the restoration to 
health of his aunt, the Empress Gemmyo. Proficiency in metal work 
at this period. All the sovereigns of the Nara period were great art 
patrons, and many famous monuments were executed in bronze and wood. 
Two famous artists of figures, Keibunkai and Kasuga. Image of alloy 
of copper, gold, and silver of Bacchadyaguru, the Japanese Buddhistic 
Esculapius, and an eleven-faced Kwannon, " goddess of mercy." 
Bronze bells, probably for religious ceremonials, without tongues. Bell 
of Todayi, Nara, the oldest in Japan. Lacquer. The art made rapid 
progress, and took a high place among the arts. Lacquer artists were 
required to sign their works. Lacquer inlaid with mother-of-pearl began, 
also with silver and gold, and gold powder in the varnish. Rhus Verni- 
cifera, the lacquer tree, cultivated. 

Painter O-oka No Imshi, name known, but no works exist. 



ioo EIGHTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxn 

LITERATURE. The Manyoshiu, a collection of 4,000 poems. 
The Kojiki and Nihonga published, two important works, still looked 
upon as the foundation of Japanese literature and history. Printing 
was introduced, but did not become common till the Yedo period (1603- 
1867). 

Gold coin first issued. 

Buddhism prospered during the Nara period, and was firmly fixed, 
preponderating over Shintoism. 



PART III 
CHAPTER XXIII 

NINTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Italy. — Venice. — Europe generally. — Norway. — 

Burgundy. — Eastern (Byzantine) Empire.— Saracens. — Egypt. — Spain. — 

England. — Scotland. — Ireland . — India. — China. — Japan . 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 

Emperors and Kings of Italy and Germany. 

800 Charles the Great crowned at Rome by Leo III. Founded the 
Western Empire, which took the place of the ancient Imperium. 
Pope and Emperor on Roman coins. 

801 Charles returned to Germany, making his son, Pepin, King of 
Italy. 

810 Pepin died. Charles nominated Pepin's son, Bernhard, King of 
Italy. 

813 Charles invested his son, Lewis the Pious, with Imperial dignity: 
his idea of dividing his territory between his successors as kings, 
with one as an emperor over all (see Appendix XXI), led to dynastic 
quarrels, which nearly broke up the Empire. 

814 Lewis I the Pious succeeded as sole emperor on death of Charles 
the Great. 

820 Lewis the Pious appointed his eldest son, Lothair, co-emperor. 
Envy of his brothers caused much fighting, and Bernhard revolted. 
He was imprisoned, deprived of sight, and died. Throne of Italy 
vacant for two years. 

823 Lothair, already co-emperor with his father, was proclaimed King 
of Italy. 

824 Lothair sent to Rome to restore order between Pope Eugenius and 
the people. Trial and condemnation of Papal camera. Joint 
authority of Emperor and Pope in legal affairs recognized, and the 
Emperor claimed the right to ratify the election of Popes. 

840 Lothair, sole emperor on death of Lewis the Pious. 846 Sara- 
cens sailed up the Tiber, sacked St. Peter's and St. Paul's. 
849 They were defeated at Ostia. 

850 Lothair made his son Lewis co-emperor. 



102 NINTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxm 

855 Lewis II sole emperor on death of Lothair. 

857 Dispute with Constantinople leading to irreconcilable schism 

between Roman and Greek Empires. 
875 Death of Lewis II, last vigorous Carolingian. Charles the Bald, 

King of the West Franks, and Lewis of Germany, sons of Lewis the 

Pious, strove for the Imperial crown. 
875 Charles the Bald, son of Lewis the Pious, crowned by Pope 

John VIII. Imperial majesty sinking as Papal majesty rose. 
877 Louis II, King of France (the Stammerer), son of Charles, crowned 

by John VIII after a struggle for the Imperial throne with Carloman, 

his cousin. 
879 Charles the Fat, also his cousin, received the Imperial crown, 

Lewis being too feeble to rule. 

887 Charles deposed by the Germans. Arnulf, his nephew, elected 
as king, but could not maintain his power. History of period very 
tangled. 

888 Charles died. Italy had neither king nor emperor, a prey to tyrants 
and preterjders arising on every side. 891 Guido, Duke of 
Spoleto, a descendant of Lothair, crowned Emperor by Pope 
Stephen V. 

892 Struggle between Guido and Berenger, grandson of Lewis the 
Pious. Lambert, son of Guido, crowned by Formosusas co-regent. 

896 Lambert deposed. Arnulf crowned by Formosus. Lambert re- 
stored by John IX. Arnulf died 899. 

ART AND LITERATURE. Charles the Great encouraged learning 
and art in Germany and Italy. Aix-la-Chapelle and Tours became great 
art centres under his patronage. 

Carolingian religious Art and Architecture rising in Italy, 
Germany, and France, developed by the fusion of the nations, and also by 
the final defeat of the Iconoclasts in the Eastern Empire in 842. 

Comacine Masters in Italy and north of the Alps, developed the 
Lombardic Style of Architecture (also known as Romanesque), 
combining elements of ancient Roman and Ravenna buildings. 

Fine Ivories and Miniatures, showing resemblances of style. Many 
ivory crucifixion scenes. 

A School of Miniatures in illustrated MSS. of Celtic type produced at 
St. Gallen, Switzerland, in the Benedictine monastery founded by St. 
Gall, a disciple of Columbanus, called "the Apostle of Switzerland," 
similar to those produced in Ireland and Scotland in the eighth and ninth 
centuries. 

German Literature beginning. A previous lost literature existed, 
the value of which can never be known. 

The Heliand, a religious poem, a Life of Christ in alliterative verse. 

" Krist," by Otfried, a monk — a similar work. 

Eginhard wrote the Annals of Charles the Great. 



chap, xxmj NINTH CENTURY A.D. 103 

POPES 

800 Leo III crowned Charles the Great Emperor. 802 Carried on 
negotiations between rival emperors of West and East, Charles and 
Nicephorus. Sanctioned the division of Western Empire by Charles 
between his three sons. 

816 Stephen IV elected without intervention of Emperor. Questions 
arose regarding relations between Pope and Emperor. Crowned 
Lewis and Irmengarde at Reims. 

817 Paschal I elected by Romans. Shrewd, energetic man. Crowned 
the co-Emperor Lothair. 

824 Eugenius II. Friction between Pope and Emperor Lewis the 

Pious. Disunion between Pope and the city of Rome; order 

restored by Lothair. The Pope opened schools in cloisters of 

cathedrals, the origin of ecclesiastical seminaries. 
827 Sergius II. Consecrated without the Emperor's sanction. 
847 Leo IV. Restored the walls and fortifications of the Vatican 

district, and dedicated the Leonine City in 852. Replaced Church 

treasure sacked by the Saracens. 
855 Leo died. Dissensions about election of a Pope between populace, 

cardinals, and Emperor. Fable of Pope Joan. 
855 Benedict III. Dispute with Constantinople began about 857. 
858 Nicholas I. Greek schism. Nicholas gave the Bulgarians a con- 
stitution. 
864 Forged Decretals adopted by Nicholas. Quarrels between 

Emperor and Nicholas. 
867 Hadrian II. Lambert, Duke of Spoleto, attacked Rome. Brother 

of Guido, who became Emperor 891. 
872 John VIII. Opposed the Saracens, bought them off with annual 

tribute. 
882 John died. For a time the princely splendour of the papacy sank. 

Marino died 884. Hadrian III died 885. Stephen V died 891. 

Crowned Guido. 
891 Formosus. Crowned Lambert, deposed him; crowned Arnulf. 
896 Formosus died. Series of popes followed in quick succession; 

time of disorder and violence. 

896 Boniface, Pope for fifteen days. 897 Stephen VI held post- 
mortem trial of Formosus. 

897 Romanus, Pope for four months. Theodorus, Pope for twenty days. 

898 John IX. Restored Lambert as emperor. 

ROMAN ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Pope Leo III, a great 
builder. Architecture active. 

Pascal I, patron of native and Byzantine art and church builder. 

About 817, relations between Roman and Byzantine art were revived 
by the number of Greek monks and artists who had sought refuge in Rome 
during the Iconoclastic persecutions in the Eastern Empire. After this 
time art in Rome decreased. 

Carolingian frescoes in St. Clemente, lower Church. 



104 NINTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxm 

ITALY 

Bells first used by churches in the ninth century in Italy, and Cam- 
paniles erected, mostly cylindrical in form. Apollinare Nuovo at 
Ravenna the first, 850-876. The earlier towers had been used for other 
purposes than bells. 

VENICE 

Venice remained independent when Charles founded the Empire of 
the West. 
809 Venice drove Pepin off. The republic began to grow in importance 

and strength. Government moved to the Rivo-Alto (Rialto) in 813. 
814 Doges' palace begun on present site, and also the Ducal Chapel 

of St. Theodore, now S. Marco. 
827 Body of S. Marco brought from Alexandria (reigning Doge, 

Giustiniano Participazio), and he became titular saint in place of St. 

Theodore; and the church of S. Marco erected in place of the 

Chapel of St. Theodore, begun 836. 
888 Original Campanile in the Piazza of S. Marco. 

EUROPE 

The beginning of the chief European nations arose during the course 
of the ninth and tenth centuries. The Western Empire of Charles the 
Great split into four kingdoms after the deposition of Charles the Fat in 
887, viz. : I, Germany (the East Franks); IT, France (the West Franks); 
III, Italy; IV, Burgundy. The three kingdoms of Denmark, Nor- 
way, and Sweden formed during the ninth and tenth centuries. 

NORWAY 

About the end of the ninth century Norway first became a united 
kingdom, and a comparatively authentic record of its history begins. 

860 Harold, surnamed The Fairhaired, succeeded his father, 
Half dan. Harold gradually conquered all Norway, and ruled for seventy- 
three years. He was assisted by Earl Haakon, whose descendants are con- 
spicuous in subsequent history as the Hlade jarls, and also Earl Rognwald 
of Moeri, ancestor of the Dukes of Normandy and the Orkney Earls. 



BURGUNDY 

879 Foundation of kingdom of Upper 

Burgundy. 
888 Foundation of kingdom of Lower 

Burgundy. 



United in 1052 under the 
same kings as Germany. 



EASTERN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE (Emperors at Constantinople) 
802 Irene dethroned. Her five years of power disastrous at home and 
abroad. Nicephorus elected. Favoured Iconoclasts, forbade the 



chap, xxin] NINTH CENTURY A.D. 105 

Patriarch to hold communication with the Pope. Made treaty with 

Charles the Great. War with the Saracens. Killed in war with 

Bulgarians. 
811 Michael I, a strong Iconodule, removed Iconoclasts from army and 

state offices. Bulgarian war. Michael defeated. 
813 Deposed by army. Leo V, a general, elected. Victorious over 

Bulgarians. Firm ruler and Iconoclast. Murdered by Iconodules. 
820 Michael II, the Armenian, an Iconodule, elected. An inferior 

man. Crete lost to the Saracens in 823; also Sicily in 827, both 

inhabited chiefly by Greeks. 
829 Theophilus, his son, cultivated and able man, an Iconoclast. 

Edict against all kinds of statues, pictures, and mosaics of Christ 

and Saints. Constantinople a great trade centre. Long struggle 

with the Caliphate. Embassy of John the Grammarian to Caliph 

Motassem. 
842 Michael III, his son, four years old; his mother, Theodora, 

regent, an Iconodule. Final restoration of the pictures in Sta 

Sophia. Saracen war continued. 

856 Michael III took the government into his own hands. Surnamed 
" the Drunkard." A depraved man. All ranks of society very 
depraved at the time. 

857 Dispute with Rome regarding the power of the Papacy, leading to 
an irreconcilable schism between the Roman and Greek Empires. 

862 Michael III made his uncle Bardas Caesar and co-ruler. 

866 Caused Bardas to be killed. Made Basil, the Macedonian, Caesar. 
Forced Bulgaria to pay homage and to become Christian. 

867 Basil, the Macedonian, murdered Michael and became Emperor. 
An able ruler. Empire flourished. Revised laws of Justinian. 
Beginning of power and glory of the Byzantine Empire. 

877 Syracuse lost to the Saracens. Last Greek city in Sicily. 
888 Leo VI, called "the Learned." Literary and cultivated man, but 
unpractical ruler. War with Saracens continued. 

The Iconoclasts destroyed much Art work during the eighth and 
ninth centuries. Byzantine sculptors and mosaicists, etc., left their 
country and spread their arts in other countries. 

Influence of the Byzantine emperors diminished in the west by the 
conquests of Charles the Great and the independence of the popes, also 
by the formation of two Saracen kingdoms in Africa and Spain; but in- 
creased by the extensive mercantile connection with the Greeks, who then 
possessed the most lucrative commerce of the Mediterranean. 

SARACENS 
809 Haroun-al-Raschid, Caliph at Bagdad, died. Empire broke up 

into a number of separate states. 
813 El-Mamun, Caliph. 
823 Saracens conquered Crete. 
827 Saracens landed in Sicily and gradually conquered it, and continued 

in power till the end of the eleventh century. 



106 , NINTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxin 

833 El Motassem, Caliph. War with Theophilus, truce 842; but 

struggle with Byzantine Empire continued throughout the century. 

Mohammedan rule firmly established in Egypt. Persecution of 

Copts. 
840 Called into Italy by Duke of Benevento. Were at Ostia in 846, 

and sailed up the Tiber to Rome. Sacked St. Peter's and St. Paul's. 

849 Vanquished at Ostia by Pope Leo IV. 
853-871 Mofareg-ibu-Salem, pirate Moslem king, with the title of 

Sultan, the terror of South Italy. Opposed by Emperor Lewis II. 
861-869 Empire of Caliphs breaking up; four Caliphs murdered in 

four years. 

867 Campaign against Saracens conducted by Lewis II, who routed 
them in 872. 

877 Syracuse taken by Saracens. 888 Saracens in Switzerland. 

Struggle between Mohammedans and Christians in Spain during the 
ninth century. Saracens losing ground before the advance of the Eastern 
Empire. 

EGYPT 

856 Turks in Egypt governed. The country had previously been 
governed by the Caliphs in Bagdad. The Copts, much persecuted, 
were now subdued, and the Mohammedan rule and religion firmly 
established. 

868 Ibn Tulun, governor, son of a Turkish slave, a Mamluk = white 
slave. Assumed kingly state and independence. Extended the boun- 
daries of Egypt beyond Syria into Mesopotamia. 

Mosque of Ibn Tulun, Cairo, 876. Architect, a Copt. Many other 
buildings. 

SPAIN 

Continuous struggle between Moslems and Christians. 
801 Barcelona recovered from the Moors. 
842 Ramiro I, King of Asturias. A cultivated man. Continual war 

with the Moors. 
850 Alfonso III, called the Great. Counts of Castile dependent on 

Kings of Asturias. 
885 Garcia. First King of Navarre, which was formerly occupied by 

Frankish adventurers till Count Sancho Inigo, 873. 
Two churches at Oviedo built by Ramiro I. Carving, Byzantine and 
Roman influence. 

ENGLAND 

827 Ecgberht, King of Wessex, united all England under his rule, died 
836. Invasion of Danes, ravaging the coast and plundering London 
and Canterbury. 

836 ^Ethelwulf. 858 ^thelbald. 860 iEthelberht. 866 
^thelred, kings of Wessex. 

872 iElfred the Great. Defeated the Danes. Created a fleet. 



chap, xxiii J NINTH CENTURY A.D. 107 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. From the ninth century, crosses in 
England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, with sculptured reliefs. 

Anglo-Saxon period. Many stone churches built by Alfred; he 
brought over foreign craftsmen, and the minor arts rose, influenced by 
their work. Danes burnt York Cathedral. 

LITERATURE. Johannes Scotus (Erigena), c. 820-880. Uncer- 
tain whether born in England, Ireland, or Scotland. Studied in Ireland. 
One of the most important thinkers of the Middle Ages. Was at the court 
of Charles the Bald. Wrote many great works. 

jElfred the Great translated works of Boethius into Anglo-Saxon. 
His literary tastes and translations gave an impetus to English literature. 

The Saxon Chronicle commenced 875 and continued until 11 54. 

Rune Songs. 

SCOTLAND 

844 Kenneth Macalpine. Picts and Scots united — one kingdom 
established under his rule. 

851 He brought the relics of St. Columba to Dunkeld. 861 Donald I. 

IRELAND 

845 Death of Thorgest, or Turgesius, a leader of the Northmen, called 
the " scourge of Ireland." Established a strong position near Athlone. 

852 Invasion of the Danes. 

Irish Celtic Art. Gold jewellery from Scandinavia introduced by 
Viking kings. The famous Round Towers of Ireland (118 still exist) 
probably date from ninth to twelfth century for religious purposes; first 
used as strongholds, and, in tenth century, as Bell Towers. 

Brehon Law in Ireland. 

INDIA 
Northern India. 

800-855 Rise and development of Rajput States affecting the 

whole political history. 
855 Utpala Dyn. succeeded Naya Dyn. in Cashmere. Two famous 

kings of the Dyn. Avantivarman, 855-883, built two great 

temples at Avantipurd, and constructed great irrigation works. 

His son Sankaravarman, a warrior and builder, founded the 

revenue system lasting till nineteenth century. 
C. 840-885 Bhoja I conquered Kanauj. Master of country from Gwalior 

to Himalayas. Stone temples of the Rajput states. 
In Southern India. 805 Rashtrakuta Dyn. gained ground, its 
greatest power under Amoghavarsha I; after him the Dyn. gradually 
declined. Buddhism declining, Brahminism' and Jainism flourishing. 
Great monolithic temple of Kailasa at Ellora about this period. Institu- 
tions of Monastic orders of Brahmins by Sankar-acharya and his 
disciples, and rivalry between them and Buddhist and Jain monks. 

SANSKRIT LITERATURE beginning to decline, but still well repre- 
sented. Magha wrote the epic poem Sisupalavadha, or the slaughter 



108 NINTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxm 

of Sisupala by Vishnu. Drama. Eight plays have survived of period from 
800-1100. 

CHINA 

T'ang Dyn. continued, decaying at the end of the century. 
806 Hientsung, grandson of Tetsong. Reign, on the whole, un- 
fortunate. 
821 Montsung, his son. Followed by several unimportant emperors. 
827 Wentsung. Tried in vain to grapple with the Eunuchs, who had 

caused the disorders of previous reigns. 
841 Woutsung, his brother. Persecuted Buddhist priests. Followed 

by two weak sons. 
846 Ytsong. Patron of Buddhism; sent to India for bone of Buddha; 

received the relic with great ceremony. His extravagance caused 

great financial difficulties. Was cruel natured. 
874 Hitsong, his son. The Dyn. in great misfortune. Struggle with 

rebels. Country in disorder. 
898 Chaotsung. Condition of the country deplorable; great central 

towns in ruins. T'ang Dyn. sinking. 
ART AND LITERATURE still flourishing. Many poets and scholars. 
881 Feng-Tao invented block-printing, in place of a crude form used 
previously. 

JAPAN (Heian period, Fujiwara family in power) 
Emperor Kwammu had in 794 removed capital from Nara to Kioto. 

A sagacious ruler. 

806 Kwammu abdicated in favour of Heijo. Many emperors abdicated 
at this period, becoming monks under title Ho-o (meaning cloistered 
emperor). 

810 Saga, emperor. Followed by several emperors who abdicated ; the 
custom was favoured by the powerful Fujiwara and Sugawara 
families. 

859 Seiwa, emperor, from whom a third powerful family rose; these 
three families controlled Japan. 

888 Uda, emperor. Abdicated. Sugawara Michizane, his tutor, be- 
came chief councillor. A celebrated, wise officer, and brilliant Chinese 
scholar. 

890 Daigo, emperor. Tranquil period, but under the appearance of 
great prosperity considerable social corruption existed. Michizane 
banished and died in 902. Canonized as Tengin, patron saint of 
men of letters and students; 25th day of month kept as a holiday in 
schools in his honour. 
ART. 834-850 Two Buddhist priest-artists, Saicho, called Deigyo 

Daishi, and Kukai, called Kobo Daishi. The latter, a student in 

Chinese religion, and also a sculptor, invented the method of "easy 

letters," i.e., writing without lifting the pen. Jitsuye and Yen-chin, 

also priest-artists, and some others. Kawanari, secular artist. Kose 






chaps, xxm-xxiv] NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES A.D. 109 

Kanaoka, founder of the great Kose School of painting, which con- 
tinued until the twelfth century; figures, portraits, landscapes, animals, 
birds, and flowers. Works compare favourably with earliest Italian 
masters. 

808 Post of Painter Laureate created. 

Lacquer, ninth to twelfth century, pictorial designs. 

Ninth to twelfth century, a series of skilful masks for religious 
dances. 

LITERATURE. Heian period. Wave of learning inspired by Chinese 
learning and classical literature. Literature of the time reflects the Japanese 
as a cultured and pleasure-loving people. Belles-lettres, poetry, and fiction, 
much of the best work by women. Poetess Komachi. Private schools 
instituted. 
805 Tea introduced by a Buddhist priest. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

TENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Rome. — Italy. — Venice. — Eastern ( Byzantine) Empire. — 

Saracens. — Egypt. — Spain. — France. — Normandy. — N o way . — 

England . — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 
Emperors and Kings of Italy and Germany. 

901 Lewis III of Provence crowned Emperor, grandson of Lewis II. 

Came at the summons of Italians. A mere shadow. 
905 Berenger, King of Lombardy, grandson of Lewis the Pious, attacked 

Lewis of Provence, sent him away and put his eyes out. Struggle 

between Berenger and Guido for the crown. 
915 Berenger gained the crown. Weakest of the three emperors elected 

after Charles the Fat. 
924 Berenger assassinated. Title of Roman Emperor extinguished for 

thirty-seven years. Italy sunk in chaotic anarchy, history com- 
plicated by intrigues of many men and women struggling for power. 
932 Revolution headed by Alberic II, son of Marozia, Duchess of 

Tuscany, and her first husband Alberic I. Made Senator of Romans. 

Energetic ruler, controlling clergy and nobility. 
941 Hugo of Burgundy besieged Rome to obtain the Imperial crown, 

unsuccessful. Rome faithful to Alberic II; Hugo and his son 

Lothair, Kings of Italy, mere puppets. 
954 Octavian, son of Alberic, became Princeps and Senator, made Pope 

in 955, called John XII. 
962 Otto I, crowned Emperor. Was the son of Henry the Fowler, 

a Saxon duke. Was renowned in war, power, and wisdom. France, 



no TENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxiv 

Italy, and Germany now separate countries, each striving for inde- 
pendence. Otto, a second Charles the Great, was needed to restore 
unity to Rome. Left Rome after his coronation, and after this date 
Italy and Germany had the same kings. 963 Returned to Rome; 
city split into Imperial and Papal factions, and thus it remained for 
centuries. 

973 Otto I died, having restored the Holy Roman Empire and made 
Germany a leading power in Europe. His first wife Edith, daughter 
of Edward the Elder of England, second wife Adelaide, widow of 
Lothair, King of Italy. 

973 Otto II. Tried to weld Germany and Italy into a solid Imperial 
unity. War with Saracens and Greeks. He married Theophano, 
daughter of the Greek Emperor. 983 His son, aged three, elected 
King of Italy and Germany at Verona. Otto II died the same year. 

983 Otto III, his son, three years old. Regency of his mother Theo- 
phano till she died in 991. 

984 John Crescentius seized the power and assumed title of Pa- 
tricius. 989 Treaty with Theophano. 

996 Otto III crowned Emperor by Gregory V. Crescentius paid homage 
to him, but rebelled in 998 and was put to death. 

ART. Ivory carving an important part of religious art, much good 
ivory carving of the times of the Ottos, of the German Byzantine School. 
Byzantine Cloisonne enamel, and miniature painting made great progress. 
Marriage of Otto II with Theophano, daughter of Eastern Emperor, Ro- 
manus II, gave an impetus to artists from Constantinople. 

Otto III took a Roman artist, "John," to paint frescoes in his palace 
at Aix-la-Chapelle in 990. Bishop Bernwald increased the importance 
of the town of Hildesheim, and greatly stimulated the art of metal 
working towards the end of the century. 

LITERATURE. Hroswitha, a learned nun of Gandesheim, wrote 
first German mediaeval Christian drama, studied Terence for style. 
Ekkehard, poems. 

POPES 

901 Benedict IV crowned Lewis of Provence. 

903 Leo V. Reigned one month, overthrown by Christophorus, who 
was overthrown by Sergius III. 

904 Sergius III. Rebuilt the Lateran which had been ruined during 
civil wars in Rome. In eight years eight popes had been elected and 
overthrown. A dark period in Rome. 

911 Anastasius III. 913 Landus. 

914 John X. Sought to repress factions. Crowned Hugo of Provence, 
King of Italy. John X was murdered by order of Marozia, Duchess 
of Tuscany. 

928 Leo VI. Reigned a few months. Stephen VII owed his eleva- 
tion to Alberic. 



chap, xxiv] TENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 1 1 1 

931 John XI, son of Marozia and her first husband Alberic I. She 
tyrannized over Church and Rome. Her third husband was Hugo, 
King of Italy. 

931 John XI deprived of his power by Alberic II his brother; died in 
936 after five inglorious years under his brother. 

936 Leo VII. Renounced temporal power under the strong rule of 
Alberic II. 

939 Stephen VIII. 942 Marinus II, gentle, peace-loving man. 
Obeyed the rule of Alberic II. 

946 Agapitus II. Papacy began to reassert itself. 

955 John XII, Octavian, son of Alberic II. Weak and unpopular. 
Rome in a debased condition. He invited Otto, King of Italy, son 
of Henry the Fowler, and crowned him Emperor 962. 

963 John XII deposed by Otto. 964 Benedict V, Antipope, 
deposed and imprisoned by Otto. 

965 John XIII created Pope during the deposition of John XII. 

972 Benedict VI. Put to death by Crescentius. 974 Boni- 
face VII, Antipope. He soon fled to Constantinople. 

974 Benedict VII. Restored churches and convents. 

983 John XIV. Antipope Boniface returned and murdered John XIV. 
Was murdered himself 984. 

984 John XV. A stormy reign. 

996 Gregory V, a Saxon. Appointed by Otto III. Crescentius set up 
an antipope John XVI. Otto put them both to death in 998 and 
brought Gregory V back to Rome. 

999 Silvester II (Gerbert). Alliance between Pope and Emperor to 
raise Holy Roman Empire. Was a learned man, studied Greek 
philosophy and Boethius, also studied geometry, and astronomy on 
a globe. 

ROME 

A dark period. Culture and art at a low ebb in the tenth century. 
Frescoes (950-975) in St. Elia near Nepi, signed by the artists John 
and Stephen, two brothers, and their nephew Nicholas, style resembling the 
mosaics of SS. Cosmo and Damian in Rome and St. Apollinare Nuovo 
in Ravenna. Heraclius wrote a handbook on Painting, still exists. 

ITALY 

Feudal system rising in the tenth century, and the rule of lords and 
bishops in the north founded the mediaeval Italian Republics. Lom- 
bardic and Romanesque church architecture rising in Italy and north 
of the Alps, and in Dalmatia, and acquiring definite form. Campaniles 
increasing, some square, superseding the round. Writing material became 
scarce when Egypt fell into the hands of the Arabs, Palimpsests arose 
in consequence, and many classics were then destroyed. 



ii2 TENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxiv 

VENICE 

976 St. Mark's destroyed by fire and rebuilt. 

991 Venice became independent of Eastern Empire, acquired the 

maritime cities of Dalmatia and Istria under Doge Pietro 

Orseolo II. Extension of commerce. 

EASTERN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE 

912 Thessalonica lost to the Saracens. 

912 Constantine VII (Porphyrogenitus), son of the Emperor Leo VI, 
a boy of seven. Government carried on by regents till 945, when he 
commenced at the age of forty years to rule alone. Time of intrigues 
and conspiracies. Art and letters revived in Constantinople under 
him. Ordered historical works to be written. Sclavonians settled 
in the Peloponnesus. 

959 Rom anus II. Crete reconquered from Saracens. Bulgarian war. 
His daughter Theophano married the Latin Emperor Otto II. 
Romanus died in 963 leaving two infant sons, Basil and Con- 
stantine. 

963 Theophano, widow of Romanus, regent. Married Nicephorus 
Phocas, who ruled in the name of his stepsons. Greek conquests 
in Cilicia, North Syria, and Cyprus. Nicephorus murdered by his 
wife Theophano 969, aided by John Zimisces, his nephew. 

969 John I Zimisces. Married Theodora, a daughter of Romanus II. 
War with Russia. John victorious. Bulgaria conquered. Saracen 
war continued. Died 976. 

976 Basil II reached his majority, eldest son of Romanus II. Victory 
over Bulgarians, took 15,000 prisoners and put out their eyes. En- 
larged the Empire, his reign the culminating point of Byzantine 
greatness. Greeks the greatest merchants and capitalists of the world 
during this century. 

BYZANTINE ART. Third period, or Renaissance, began at the end of 
the ninth century, and its second golden period rose in the beginning of 
the tenth century. {See Appendix XVIII.) 

SARACENS 

Possessed Sicily. Constantly at war with the Byzantines, Southern 
Italy, and Spain. 973 Driven from France. The Fatimite Dyn. of 
Caliphs rising in Egypt and North Africa: the Abbasids sank, much 
contention among them. Moslems very strong in Spain, 910-961, under 
Caliph Abd-al-Zahman III. 

EGYPT 

905 Race of Ibn Tulun ended. The rule had been favourable. 
969 Fatimid rule established by Gawhar, a general of the Fatimid 
Caliph El Moizz. End of x\bbasid Caliphate. The modern capital 



chap, xxiv] TENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 1 13 

of Cairo founded near the old capital Fustat. Palaces and 
mosques built. The University El-Azhar built. El-Moizz a 
capable statesman, and patron of art and literature. Lived in mag- 
nificence. Fine manufactures of silk and woollen materials. 

975 El- Aziz, his son. A good ruler. Married a Christian. Lived in 
even greater magnificence than his father. 

996 El-Hakim, his son. Indolent, self-indulgent, and tyrannical. Built 
some fine mosques. One is now the " Museum of Arabian Art." 

SPAIN 

Rise of the three kingdoms of Navarre, Castile, and Aragon. 
970 Sancho the Great of Navarre predominant. Struggle between 
Christian and Moslem rule, the latter very strong. 910-961 The Moors 
held the greater part of Aragon. 982 Burgos founded; made the capital 
of Castile. Architecture. Church of S. Pablo del Campo erected 914 by 
Count Wilfredo at Barcelona. Good example of early Catalan architect- 
ure, Romanesque influence. Restored 1 1 1 7 by Guiberto Guitardo. Some 
other churches built. 

FRANCE 

896 Charles the Simple, son of Louis the Stammerer, elected king. 
Married Edgiva, a daughter of Edward the Elder of England. 

922 Robert of Burgundy I R . , , rh , 

923 Rudolf of Burgundy J 

929 Rudolf of Burgundy. Charles, who was deposed, died in prison. 
936 Louis IV (Outremer), son of Charles. Brought up in England 

under yEthelstane. 
954 Lothair. 986 Louis V last Carolingian king. 
987 Hugh Capet chosen king, son of Hugh the Great and Hedwig, a 

daughter of Henry the Fowler. The real beginning of the modern 

kingdom of France. 
996 Robert II (the Pious), his son. Paris the capital and seat of 

government. Feudal vassals growing powerful and at war among 

themselves. 
Cluny. St. Berno reformed the order of Benedictines in France and 
founded his monastery at Cluny; the first link in a long chain of spiritual 
and militant orders. Followed by Abbot Odo of Cluny. 961-103 1 Wil- 
liam of Volpiano, a Benedictine monk, educated at Cluny, afterwards 
abbot at Dijon. A man of great learning and iron will, reformer of the 
monastic orders, architect and builder of churches and convents. Rebuilt 
church of St. Benigne at Dijon. Diffusion of Italian culture in Burgundy 
and Normandy. 

NORMANDY 

913 Rolf, a Northman chief, made a great settlement, Rouen at the 
head, and the Duchy of Normandy was founded. Charles the 
Simple, King of the West Franks, agreed to give him the land between 
the Seine and the Epte if he became a Christian; the land held in 
fief of the king. 

. 1 



n 4 TENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxiv 



NORWAY 

933 Harold the Fairhaired died; he had divided his kingdom among 
his sons, giving predominance to Eric Bloodaxe, who attempted 
to make himself sole King of Norway and slew two of his brothers. 

933 Eric Bloodaxe, frequently mentioned by English chroniclers as 
Eric Haroldson, married Gunhild, a Finn. In 935 his youngest 
brother Haakon, who had been brought up at ifethelstane's 
court, took the throne. Eric fled and sailed about as a Viking, harry- 
ing the coasts of Scotland and England, and accepted a portion of 
Northumberland from ^thelstane on the condition of his defending 
the country against Norse and Danish Vikings. Died in England 
954, and his widow, Gunhild, went to Denmark with her sons to the 
court of Harold Bluetooth, who, according to one of the sagas, 
offered her marriage. 

935 Haakon the Good, a brother of Eric, took the throne. Had 
become a Christian during his residence in England, and forbade 
sacrifice to the old gods, but the people refused the new faith. 

961 The sons of Eric and Gunhild, who had invaded Norway, slew 
Haakon in battle, and took possession of Norway with Harold Blue- 
tooth the Dane. For many years the country was the scene of 
struggles between the sons of Eric and Haakon mixed up with inter- 
ference from Denmark. 

995 Olaf Tryggvason landed and took the throne. A great-grandson 
of Harold Fairhair, had been brought up at Novgorod and took to a 
Viking life in his youth. Heard of in England in 991 and 994. The 
five years of his reign occupied in his endeavours to destroy the Asa 
faith and establish Christianity by force, but he failed to eradicate the 
old faith. A hero of Norse history. 

ENGLAND 

901 Eadward the Elder, Alfred's son. Defeated the Danes and ruled 
the whole of England. His daughter Edith married Otto I, and his 
daughter Edgiva married Charles the Simple. 

924 ^thelstane, his son. Kept England free of the Danes. His 
sisters married to the chief princes of Europe. He sheltered Louis 
Outremer, who became the Frankish king. 

940 Eadmund the Elder, brother of ^Ethelstane. Primate Dunstan, a 
great statesman, practically controlled the country. 

947 Eadred, brother of Eadmund. Left the administration of the govern- 
ment to Dunstan. 

955 Eadwig, his son. Deposed Dunstan. 958 Eadgar, his brother, 
made king and Dunstan recalled. 

974 Eadward the Martyr. Murdered by his step-mother Elfrida 
in 979. 

979 iEthelred the Unready, her son. Married Emma, daughter of 
Richard of Normandy. 



chap, xxiv] TENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 1 15 

980 Mercia and Northumbria parted from Wessex. ^Ethelred took 

refuge in Normandy. Dunstan died 986. 
989 Danes returned and made great inroads. 

ANGLO-SAXON ARCHITECTURE. York Cathedral rebuilt after 
being burnt by the Danes in the previous century. Great building period 
during Dunstan's time. Runic crosses with good carving. Saxon 
period decorative work applied to vessels for church use, ivories for 
caskets, diptychs, and plaques. Painted and gilded images made by crafts- 
men called "the Steyners." Ecclesiastical embroidery, Opus Angli- 
canum. Fine specimen in Durham Cathedral library, dated 910. Dunstan 
is said to have designed embroidery. He created a school of illuminated 
MSS. (See Miniatures Art Supplement^) 



LITERATURE 

910 Asser's "Life of yElfred." 
925-988 St. Dunstan's works. 
937 War poems of Brunanburh. 



991 War poems of Maldon. 
991 Byrhtnoth's "Death." 
995 ^Elfric's Homilies. 



SCOTLAND 

900 Constantine II, first great Scottish king. Defeated the Norsemen. 

Retired in old age to the monastery of St. Andrews. 
943 Malcolm I succeeded. 954 Indulf succeeded, son of Con- 
stantine II. 
963 Kenneth I, son of Malcolm I. Invaded Northumberland. Tried to 
consolidate the kingdom. 
CELTIC ART in Scotland belongs to eighth, ninth, and tenth cen- 
turies. Also round towers resembling Irish round towers. 

IRELAND 

976 Danish incursions opposed and subdued by Brian Boru, King of 
Munster. 980 Malachy, head of the O'Neils, over-king. 984 
Leinster kings paid homage to Brian. 
The round towers belong to this century and the next; also early 
ecclesiastical art of Illuminating, gold and silver work showing con- 
nection with Italian designs. 

INDIA 

Northern India. By the middle of the tenth century all the bases of 
neo-Hinduism, political, social, and religious, had been firmly laid. The 
Rajputs established, and magnificent Stone Temples springing up. 
A group of about forty temples of tenth and eleventh centuries at Khaju- 
rako, Hindu and Jain. The older temples covered with elaborate sculptures 
and beautiful in form. Also great fortifications. Palmy age of Rajput 
architecture. Buddhism decreasing and practically extinct by end of 
century, but its twin, Jainism, flourishing. 



n6 TENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxiv 

Southern India. Hindu period. Eastern Chalukyas powerful. 
Mahmud, a great Mohammedan ruler, began a long series of incur- 
sions into India in 999. 

C. 900 Medhatithi on Manu, the oldest surviving Sanskrit legal com- 
mentary. 
Rajaskhara, dramatist in Sanskrit and Prakrit. 

CHINA (end of T'ang, beginning of Sung Dyn.) 
905 Chao Hienti. Last T'ang sovereign. Massacre of T'ang princes. 
907 Era of the five small Dyns. 

960 Chow Kwang Yn, of pure Chinese race. Restored the unity of 
the Empire and founded the Sung Dyn. He took name of 
Taitsou. 
976 Taitsong. Sung Dyn. established. 998 Chintsong I. 

ART. Huang Ch'uan, calledby Japanese O-sen, a famous painter 
during the short period between T'ang and Sung Dyns. 

Sung period. Three centuries of fine art and literature from 960 
to 1280. 

Principal artists of the Sung period (Japanese names in brackets) 



Kuo Hsi. Landscapes. 

Hsia Kuei (Kakie). Landscapes. 

Ma Yuan (Bayen). Landscapes. 

Hsiang. Landscapes. 

Hiao. 

Chao-Ta-Mien. Animals. 

Emperor Hui Tsung (Kiso Kolei). 

Landscapes. 
Li Ti (Riteki). Landscapes. 
Ma Lui. Animals. 



Lou Kuan (Rokan). Flowers. 

Mu Ch'i (Mokkei). Animals. 

Li An Chung (Reanchiu). Birds. 

Hui Su (Eiso). Birds. 

Chang Chung Mu. Birds. 

Ma Kwei (Ba-Ki). Birds. 

Mao I (Maghe). Birds. 

Li Lung Mien (Ri Riu Min). Re- 
ligious; also illustrated work on 
bronzes. 



At the close of the Sung Dyn., 1280, Chinese painters were at the head 
of the world in their art. The type influenced by Dyana or Zen Doctrine of 
Contemplation. The Dragon and Tiger, great symbolical figures of 
power, painted as a pair of pictures by almost every artist of note who 
worked in Chinese tradition, of China or Japan, the dragon of this period 
unaltered in type at the present time. 

Sung pottery very fine, beautiful glazes, very refined and delicate 
colours. Seven principal wares, details too numerous to quote. 

Decadence of bronze art set in after the end of the T'ang Dyn. 

LITERATURE. 954 FengTao died: he invented Block Printing 
for books, and all the Confucian classics published; subsequent rise in 
literature. 

947 Wu Shu compiled an encyclopaedia, first of the kind, which 
became numerous later on. 

JAPAN (Heian or Kioto period, Fugiwara supremacy) 

Many emperors abdicated, as in previous century, some after very short 
reigns, generally retiring to monasteries with the title Ho-o (meaning 



chaps, xxiv-xxv] TENTH & ELEVENTH CENTURIES 117 

cloistered emperor). Fugiwara family ruled the country through the 
emperors, and encouraged the custom of abdication to strengthen their 
own power. Intercourse with China ceasing, and the country closed to 
foreigners: devoted to assimilating the mass of ideas which had passed 
in from outside: a national style inaugurated in art and literature. 

ART based on Chinese traditions beginning to assume a character of its 
own. 

941 Yeshin Sozu, priest-painter, blended Chinese and Japanese re- 
ligious art. Great triptychs. Called the Fra Angelico of Japan. Also 
a writer; works published in 150 volumes. 

Decorative Art rising, formerly religious only. Three celebrated 
mask-carvers of masks for religious dances. Some masterpieces of metal 
sculpture. Lacquer, extension of subjects; including landscapes and 
religious scenes. 

LITERATURE. The Emperor Daigo had a collection made of the 
best poems of the last 150 years; it comprised 1,100 poems. Many 
classics written in poetry and prose, two reaching the highest point by two 
women, viz. : 

(1) " The Gengi Monogalari," a novel in fifty-four books finished 
c. 1004. 

(2) "Makura Zoshi," or Pillow Sketches, by Sei-Shondgon, after 
she entered a convent in 1000. She had been lady-in-waiting to the 
Empress. 



CHAPTER XXV 

ELEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — -Germany. — Popes. — Rome and Italy. — Venice. — Sicily. — Eastern 

( Byzantine) Empire. — Selj ukian Turks. — Egypt. — France. — Anjou. — Spain. — Norway. 

— England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — Wales. — India. — Java. — China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 

1002 Otto III died. No heir. Romans placed Patrician crown on 
head of John Crescentius, son of the Crescentius executed by 
Otto III. Henry II (the Saint) elected to the throne in Germany, 
and crowned Emperor by Pope Benedict VIII in 1013 on death of 
John Crescentius. His wife, Cunigunda. 

102 1 Normans in Italy, a band of adventurers under Gisalbert. 

1024 Conrad II, the Salic. Crowned 1027 by Pope John XIX. Canute 
present, and also Rudolf III, the last King of Aries, Burgundy, which 
after 1032 ceased to be a separate kingdom, and had the same 
kings as Germany. 

1036 Revolution in Lombardy of the smaller vassals and feudal lords, 
led by Heribert. 



1 1 8 ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxv 

1039 Henry III, son and successor of Conrad. Young and vigorous, 
a strong ruler. Mediaeval empire at its culminating point of power 
under him. He married Gyda, daughter of Canute. 

1056 Henry IV, a child of six, succeeded on his father's death. Decline 
of power begins. Agnes of Poitou, his mother, regent; weak rule. 
Godfrey the Hunchback of Lorraine brought back his wife, the 
great Countess Matilda of Tuscany (see Appendix XXII), to 
Italy, whence they had been banished by Henry III as being a strong 
papal power menacing the Imperial policy. 1073 Struggle 
between Empire and Papacy. Matilda assisted the Pope, 
Gregory VII (Hildebrand). Germany, Italy, and France joined in 
the struggle for power between the Emperor and the Pope. 

1059 Robert Guiscard, the Norman, fourth son of Tancred of Haute- 
ville, made Duke of Apulia and Calabria by the Pope. Formed his 
kingdom in Sicily, turning the Saracens out. 

1076 Henry IV excommunicated. 1077 His humiliation and abso- 
lution at Canossa. 

1080 Henry IV again excommunicated. Besieged Rome, assisted by 
Godfrey of Bouillon. Pope Gregory assisted by Robert 
Guiscard. 

1084 Rome sacked. Henry IV left. Gregory died 1085. Papists 
and Imperialists continued fighting in the north of Italy. In 
1089 Pope Urban II married Matilda, now a widow, to the young 
son of Guelf, Duke of Bavaria, the Emperor's most powerful 
German adversary. 

1093 Conrad, Henry's eldest son, incited by Matilda to rebel, and 
crowned King of" Italy. Died mi. 

1097 Henry IV abandoned Italy. Young Guelf left his wife, Matilda, 
and the Pope, and joined the Emperor and the Imperialist party. 

1099 Henry's second son, Henry, crowned King of Germany at Aachen. 
The war between the Papacy and the Empire had reduced the latter to 

a state of great misery, and at the end of this century Europe was a great 

battlefield. 

GERMANY 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Lombardic and Romanesque style 
flourishing. Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim erected the cathedral 
there on the site of the early building of Louis the Pious, 818. 

The Minor Arts developed very rapidly for Church purposes. Bronze 
began to be used early in the century as the chief material in the pro- 
duction of works of art on a large scale. 

Bishop Bernward of Hildesheim greatly promoted the advance of 
bronze work at Hildesheim; ex. the cathedral doors and the Christ 
Column (1022) resembling the Trajan column in style. Great School of 
Enamels on the Rhine, Cologne its centre. Miniatures (see Miniatures 
Art Supplement). 



chap, xxv] ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 119 

POPES 

1003 Silvester died, followed by John XVII, John XVIII, and 

Sergius IV. 
1012 Benedict VIII. A vigorous ruler and reformer of the Church. 

Crowned the Emperor Henry II and his wife. 
1024 John XIX. Crowned the Emperor Conrad II. Ruled peacefully. 
1033 Benedict IX, twelve years old, nephew of two preceding Popes. 

Driven out. 

1044 Silvester III elected, expelled after forty-nine days. Benedict 
returned; abdicated. 

1045 Gregory VI, a young and brave monk. Raised the Papacy with 
Hildebrand as chaplain. 

1046 Clement II. A reformer of the Church. Abolished sale of 
spiritual offices. 

1047 Benedict IX, assisted to regain the Chair by Boniface of 
Tuscany, father of Matilda, Countess of Tuscany. 

1048 Damasus II placed in the Chair by Henry III, who drove 
Benedict IX out of Rome. 

1048 Leo IX, a cultured and virtuous man. Separation of Greek 
and Latin Churches. Campaign against the Normans. 1054 
Victor II. 

1057 Stephen IX. Half brother of Godfrey the Hunchback of Lor- 
raine. (See Appendix XXII.) A man of holy character. 

1058 Benedict X. Pope for a short time; deposed. 

1059 Nicholas II elected by Empress Agues (regent) and Hildebrand. 
College of Roman Cardinals instituted, from whose midst, in the 
course of time, Popes were elected. Made Robert Guiscard 
Duke of Apulia and Calabria, and future Duke of Sicily if he should 
turn the Saracens out. 

1 06 1 Alexander II. Election procured by Hildebrand in opposition to 
the German court, which elected Cadalus, and the two popes 
stood opposed. Cadalus set aside by Godfrey of Lorraine. 

1073 Gregory VII (Hildebrand). Rupture with Henry IV, and long 
struggle between the Empire and the Papacy, involving Italy, 
Germany, and France: the Countess Matilda took a leading part 
for the Papacy. An antipope, Clement III, elected, who crowned 
Henry IV and his wife, Bertha. Gregory excommunicated Henry 
twice. Died at Salerno after the Sack of Rome. 

1086 Victor III. Declined the Chair, but was forced to take it. 
Excommunicated the Antipope Clement III. 

1088 Urban II. Constant struggle between Urban and Antipope 
Clement. Anarchy in Rome. 

1095 Peter the Hermit preached the first Crusade, and the crusaders 
passed through Rome. Took Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon 
made King of the new kingdom set up there. 

1099 Paschal II. See page 129. 

Peter Damian, father and teacher of the Flagellants: the fraternity 



120 ELEVENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxv 

formed in fear and penance during the long wars of the Empire and the 
Papacy. 

1039 John Gualbert founded the Order of Vallombrosa. 

1040 Bruno of Segni founded the Carthusian order. 

ROME AND ITALY 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Beautiful Bell Towers and 
Cloisters in Rome began in the eleventh century, and continued during 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 

Lombardic and Romanesque architecture very flourishing in Italy, 
Dalmatia, Germany, Burgundy, and Normandy. 

Pisa and Genoa emerged as flourishing cities, inaugurating the period 
of the city republics of North Italy. 

VENICE 

Present structure of S. Marco begun under Doge Contarini in Byzan- 
tine style after the destruction of older building by fire in 976. In 107 1 
the mosaics commenced under Doge Domenico Selvo, great artists worked 
at them for about three centuries, after which the best style declined. 
1094 Consecration under Doge Vitale Faliero, and the body of S. Marco, 
lost in the fire of 976, was refound. 

Great increase of Commerce and the Navy. 

SICILY 

1 06 1 Robert Guiscard, the Norman, Duke of Apulia and Calabria 
(son of Tancred de Hauteville) and his youngest brother Roger, 
invaded Sicily at the Pope's instigation. Alliance between Normans 
and the Papacy; gained the battle of Castrogiovanni against the 
Saracens. 

1072 Took Palermo. Robert returned to Italy, leaving Roger the 
Count possessor of all Sicily except Palermo, which Robert retained 
for himself. 

1085 Roger I became sole ruler on death of Robert. Beneficent rule, 
each race governed by its own laws. Saracens by the Koran ; 
Greeks by the code of Justinian; Normans by Coutoumier de 
Normandie. 

EASTERN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE 

1025 Basil II died. Greatly enlarged the bounds of the Empire. 

1025 Constantine VIII, his brother. Took little part in political 

affairs. Left two daughters, Zoe and Theodora. Transferred the 

Empire to Romanus shortly before his death. 
1028 Romanus III. Married Zoe. 
1034 Michael IV of the Imperial household. Married Zoe the day 

Romanus died. Weakened the Empire; his brother, John Orphano- 

trophus conducted affairs. Successful against Saracens. Revolt of 

Bulgarians and Slavonians in Greece quelled. 

1 04 1 Michael V, his nephew. Crowned by Zoe. Was deposed and 



chap, xxv] ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 1 2 1 

blinded. Joint government of Zoe and her sister Theodora for less 
than two months; when Zoe invited Constantine Monomachus to 
take the throne. 
1042 Constantine IX. Married Zoe. Disastrous rule and schism of 
Eastern and Western Churches, and final separation shortly followed. 
Conquest of Armenia. Russian war. Servian war. Invasion of the 
Seljuk Turks. Zoe died 1050. 

1054 Theodora, Zoe's sister, became Empress, aged seventy-six. Vigor- 
ous though old. Empire peaceful. Named Michael Stratiotikos her 
successor. 

1057 Michael VI. Incompetent. Asiatic nobles placed Isaac I 
(Comnenus) on the throne. An able man, but the Byzantine 
Empire showed signs of decline. 

1059 Constantine X. In his reign assaults of the Seljukian Turks 
formidable. 

1067 Michael VII, a boy. His mother Eudocia, regent. She married 
Romanus, who assumed the rule as Romanus IV. Greeks defeated 
by the Turks at Manzicut. Turning point of Byzantine history. 

1078 Nicephorus III. Brutal and weak. Driven out. Wealth the 
chief object of society. Court and shows of the Hippodrome as 
brilliant as ever; the Empire declining. 

1 08 1 Alexius Comnenus took the throne, a virtuous man. Empire 
reformed, though in a narrower form. The last stage of Byzantine 
Eastern Empire. Empire invaded by the Normans under Robert 
Guiscard. War carried on in Epirus and Thessaly. Alexius fought 
hard against the Seljukian Turks, appealed to Urban II for help, 
and the first crusade was organized. 
Byzantine Art. Golden age of the Renaissance continued to the end 

of the century. 

SELJUKIAN TURKS 

Seljukian Turks; name of several Tartar Turkish Dyns. issuing 
from one family. Came from the deserts of Turkestan, and founded a 
united state in Central Asia in close of eleventh century under Seljuk. 
This was practically the beginning of the Turkish Empire. 

1055 Togrul Beg, grandson of Seljuk, occupied Bagdad, and was in- 
vested with temporal power. " Sultan of the East and West," " De- 
fender of the Faith." Threatened the Byzantine frontiers. In 1063 
his nephew and successor subjugated the Armenians and turned his 
arms against the Eastern Empire. The Seljukian attacks on 
Armenia and the Empire, coupled with their treatment of the 
pilgrims to the Holy Sepulchre, brought about the Crusades. 
1099 Turks lost Jerusalem. 

During the Sultanate of Malik Shah, grandson of Togrul Beg, Omar 
Khayyam, author of the celebrated Rubaiyat, whilst in charge of the 
Royal Observatory, superintended the reform of the calendar, which resulted 
in the Tarikh-i-Jalali (the so-called Seljuk Era) commencing on the 15th 
March a.d. 1079. 



1 2 2 ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxv 

EGYPT 

1021 El-Hakim murdered. An extraordinary mixture of ferocity, 
brutality, and religious fanaticism. Christians persecuted. 

1055 Struggle between the Seljukian Turks and the Fatimid Dyn. 
They united against their common enemy the Crusaders. 
New city walls and three gates built at Cairo, Bab-en-Nasr, Bab-el- 

Futuh, Bab-el-Zawila. 

FRANCE 

103 1 Robert II (the Pious) died. Created his son Henry, King of 

Burgundy. 
1 03 1 Henry I gave Burgundy to his brother Robert. Struggle with 
William of Normandy and the Count of Blois, and the Emperor 
Henry III. 
1060 Philip I, a child. Count Baldwin of Flanders, regent till 1067. 
Struggle with the Church and the Feudal vassals. Normandy power- 
ful. France in the tenth and eleventh centuries turbulent and divided. 
Lombardic and Romanesque Architecture and sculpture flourish- 
ing in Normandy and Burgundy, and many important cathedrals with 
sculpture; ex. Caen and Dijon Cathedrals. Schools of sculpture of Alvernia, 
Languedoc, Poitou, and Burgundy. The monastery of Cluny was the centre 
of the famous school of Burgundian or Cistercian architecture and decora- 
tive sculpture; ex. Notre Dame la Grande at Poitiers. 

The Minor Arts also rising. Ivories important branch of religious 
art. From eleventh century French ivories took the lead till the early Re- 
naissance, when Italian ivory carving again rose and took a leading place. 

Bone Caskets, imitations of Lombardic style, from eleventh to 
thirteenth century for relics brought from the East by Crusaders. Great 
school of Limoges Enamels arose. 

LITERATURE. Provencal literature began. Early "Chansons de 
Gestes " and " Fabliaux." " Chanson de Roland." Old French lyrics. 
Roscelin. William of Guienne, first Troubadour. Trouveres and 
Jongleurs. Abelard 1079-1142. 

ANJOU 
987-1040. Fulk the Black, Count of Anjou. At his accession Anjou 
the least important of the greater provinces of France, at his death greatest 
among them ; but after his death the greatness of Anjou came to an end 
for the time. 

SPAIN 

1 03 1 Caliphate in Spain came to an end. 

1035 Ramiro I of Aragon drove the Mbors from Aragon and 

Sobrade. 
C. 1035 The Cid, Ruy Diaz Campiador, born. Traditional hero of 

Spanish mediaeval history, champion of the Christian cause 



chap, xxv] ELEVENTH CENTURY A.D. 123 

at the time of the disruption of the Mussulman power, died 

io 99-. 
1037 Ferdinand of Castile. Divided his territories among three sons. 

Consequent wars. 
1072 Alfonso VI, King of Leon and Castile. Re-united the country, 

raised his kingdom to pre-eminence. Called " Emperor of Spain." 
1077 Alfonso connected Spain directly with Rome under Gregory VII. 

Ecclesiastical council of Burgos established the Roman ritual in 

place of the Gothic, and Spain became from this time one of the 

most faithful of the Roman Catholic countries. 
1085 Toledo recovered from the Moors, Alfonso entered in triumph, 

accompanied by the Cid. Tarragona recovered 1089. 
ARCHITECTURE. Romanesque and Lombardic churches and 
carving, mainly the work of the Benedictine order. Many prelates coming 
from Cluny and Citeaux tended to influence architecture in the direction 
of Italian and French art. Alfonso VI married a Burgundian wife, and 
Bernard who came with her was made the first Archbishop of Toledo. 
A builder, but few of his works remain. The Cathedral of Santiago de 
Compostela, a most important example of this new style, begun 1078, con- 
secrated 1 1 28, though not finished till well into the thirteenth century. 

Very few works of sculpture before this century when the art received 
a new impulse from France. 

NORWAY 

1000 Olaf Tryggvason undertook an expedition to the Baltic. Being 
defeated, is recorded to have leapt overboard and been drowned. 
Norway divided between two kings, Earl Eric and his brother 
Svend. The latter invaded England. 

1 01 6 Olaf the Saint, a descendant of Harold Fairhair. Drove out 
Svend and became king of all Norway. A zealous adherent of 
Christianity, suppressed the old forms of worship with great severity ; 
was regarded as the patron saint of the Christian monarchy. His 
rule was powerful and just. Incurred the enmity of Canute, who 
came with a great force to Norway in 1028, and Olaf fled to Russia. 
Norway ruled for a short time by Svend, son of Canute. 

J °35 OlaPs son, Magnus, came from Russia and was accepted as king. 

1042 Hardicanute, King of Denmark, died, and Magnus took posses- 
sion of Denmark according to a former agreement. Svend Estriden, 
nephew of Canute, attempted to seize Denmark. 
Harold Hardrada, half-brother of Olaf, one of the last and most 
famous of the Viking chiefs, became joint king with Magnus the 
Good. 

1047 Magnus the Good died, leaving Denmark to Svend and Norway 
to Harold Hardrada. War between the two. 

1066 Harold Hardrada invaded England when Harold, son of 
Godwin, was reigning. Hardrada fell at the battle of Stamford 
Bridge. 



1 24 ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxv 

1066 His son Olaf Kyrre (the quiet), ruled Norway in peace for twenty- 
seven years, and during his reign the country attained considerable 
prosperity. 

1093 Magnus Barefoot succeeded his father Olaf. Continually occupied 
in foreign expeditions. Fell in Ireland in 1103. 

ENGLAND 

1 01 3 Svend, King of Denmark, overran the country and subdued it. 

1016 Eadmund Ironside divided the rule with Canute, the Dane, son 
of Svend. 

1017 Canute ruled alone. England at peace. Beneficent ruler. En- 
couraged literature and art. Died 1035; succeeded by his sons 
Harold and Hardicanute. 

1042 Edward the Confessor chosen King, son of ^Ethelred. Spent 

his youth in exile in Normandy at the court from 1013 to 1041, 

and introduced many foreign customs. Godwin shared the rule, 

a great statesman. 
1066 Harold, son of Godwin, chosen King, as there was no heir fit to 

rule. 
1066 William, Duke of Normandy, claimed the crown and came 

over. Battle of Senlac (Hastings). The Norman rule began. 
1 07 1 Lanfranc, an Italian, Abbot of Bee, summoned from Normandy: 

made Archbishop of Canterbury; died 1089. Followed by Anselm 

of Bee. 
1087 William Rufus. Despotic. Hated by Normans and English. 

Contest with Anselm. 

ARCHITECTURE. Anglo-Saxon continuing. Canute built many 
churches, also rebuilt many. After the Norman Conquest building 
advanced rapidly, Norman Lombardic style of architecture rose and 
advanced, Durham Cathedral a good example. Edward the Confessor 
introduced workers from Normandy to build the new church for the monks 
at Westminster. Many cathedrals and churches were built in Norman 
style, exs. St. Albans, Winchester, Hereford, Ely, Gloucester, Worcester, 
Priory Church Malvern, etc., etc. They all received Gothic additions 
subsequently. The little chapel of St. John, in the Tower of London, 
remains entirely Norman. 

Minor Arts. Ivories of the period, such as " Adoration of the 
Magi," resemble Anglo-Saxon miniatures in style, with Byzantine influence. 
Ivory liturgic combs, a special feature of Anglo-Saxon ritual; ex. in 
B.M. with Romanesque (Lombardic) decorations. Steady rise in Mer- 
chants and Craft Guilds from eleventh century. For illuminated MSS., 
see the Miniatures Art Supplement. 

LITERATURE. Impulse given to literature by Norman Conquest. 



Wulfstan. 1002-1023. 

The Culdees? 

The Exeter Book. 1040-1073. 

Archbishop Lanfranc. 1070-10J 



Ordericus Vitalis. 1075-1143. 
Gerland. fl. 1082. 
Domesday Book, completed 1086. 
Archbishop Anselm. 1 093-1 109. 



chap, xxv] ELE VENTH CENTUR Y A.I). 125 

SCOTLAND 

1005 Malcolm II. Twice invaded Northumberland, and obtained 
Lothian. 

1034 Duncan, his grandson. Slain by Macbeth, who reigned five years 
in peace. 

1054 Malcolm III, eldest son of Duncan, drove Macbeth out. 

1067 Eadgar, grandson of Eadmund Ironside of England, came to Scot- 
land and married Margaret, his sister, to Malcolm III. 

1 09 1 Malcolm invaded England, but was forced to do homage to 
William Rufus. 

1093 Conflict for the throne between Malcolm's brother, Donald Bane 
and Malcolm's son. 
Round Towers of Brechin and Abernethy, showing resemblance to 

round towers of Ireland. 

IRELAND 

Brian Boru defeated the Danes many times; was master over Ireland 
1002. The country peaceful for twelve years, and ruined monasteries 
were rebuilt. 1014 Brian and his former rival, Malachy, fought the 
Danes, who were led by the Vikings Sigurd and Brodar; Brian killed in 
moment of victory. None of his descendants inherited his power. 

LITERATURE. C. 1088 Annals of Tigernach (O'Braoin). Annals of 
Innisfallen, c. 1009? 

WALES 

WELSH LITERATURE really began with the eleventh century, 
though tradition has preserved a few poems between the end of the sixth 
century and the eleventh century. Religious poems of the Black Book 
probably belong to the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 

INDIA 
North. 
1010-1055 Bhoja. A famous king of the Rashtrakuta Dyn., warrior, 
author, and patron of learning. Sanskrit literature flourished at 
his court. 
1 02 1 Rajput Dyn. of the Punjab finally succumbed to the repeated 
attacks of the Sultan Mahmud, the orthodox Mohammedan 
ruler of Ghazni, called the " Idol breaker." He cast down the great 
Linga shrine, broke it in three pieces, and sent them to Ghazni, 
Mecca, and Medina. He died in 1030. 
1048 The Rajputs made themselves practically independent again, 
and the eleventh and twelfth centuries were the golden age of Rajput civiliza- 
tion. Commerce flourished, and Brahminism strong. Poets and pandits. 
Temples built and pilgrimages in fashion. During the tenth, eleventh, and 
twelfth centuries fine stone temples of delicate, though fantastic, work all 
over the Rajput States ; ex. two fine Jain, white marble temples on Mount 
Abu (5,400 feet high, the summer capital of Rajputana), exhibit the most 
elaborate decorations and sculpture; one built 1023, the other 1231. 



i 2 6 ELEVENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxv 

South. 
1040 Somesvara I, a strong king of the Western Chalukyas. The Dyn. 

weakened after him. 
1069 Hoysalas, feudatories of the Chalukyas, rose to power by conquest 

of their fellow feudatories. 
1076 Vikramaditya deposed Somesvara. A long, peaceful reign. 

Patron of learning. 
Vijnanesvara, author of the celebrated legal work " Mitakshara," a 
standard work all over India, used in nineteenth century. Buddhism 
decaying in Southern India. 

JAVA 

Fine Indian sculptures at Prambanam, Java, illustrating the Hindu epic 
of Ramayana, about the eleventh century. 

CHINA (Sung Dyn.) 

1023 Chintsong I died. Country prosperous. Tartars kept back by pay- 
ment to them of money and silk. 

Jintsong, a boy of six. His mother ruled for ten years; took off 
oppressive taxes ; peace in her time, afterwards war with Hia under 
Chao-Yuen. Some short reigns followed. 

1068 Chintsong II. A great statesman and reformer in this reign, 
Wanganchi, eccentric and socialistic, his reforms caused disputes. 

1086 Chitsong, a boy. His mother, Empress Tefei, ruled for a time; 
another of the capable women of Chinese history. 

ART. Great art period. A number of banners and rolls of silk, painted 

with religious Buddhist subjects, found in a care vault at Tun huang, 

which had been walled up early in the eleventh century. Also splendid 

embroidered pictures found with them. {Sung art period, for artists, 

seepage 116.) 

LITERATURE. Many great literary men in this century — historians 

and poets. 

1007 Ou-Yang-Hsiu. Wrote chronicle of T'ang Dyn. 

ioii Shao Yung. Poet, traveller, and ascetic. 

1017 Chou Tun-i. Commentary on " Book of Changes," and various 
other commentaries. 

1019 Ssu-Ma Kuang. Wrote " Mirror of History." 

102 1 Wang An-Shih. Reformer and essay st. 

1036 Su Shih. Brilliant statesman, essayist, and poet. His early educa- 
tion given by his mother. 

Hung Chueh-fan, poet and caligraphist; became a Buddhist 
priest. Many other poets. 

JAPAN 

Fugiwara family still in power. 

ART. Chinese affinities in art disappearing as Japanese art assumed its 
own characteristics. 



chaps, xxv-xxvi] ELE VENTH & TWELFTH CENTURIES 1 2 7 

Hirotake, great-grandson of Kanaoka, and greatest after him of the 
Rose" school of painting. 

Takuma Tamenari founded the Takuma line, at first an offshoot of 
the Rose school; attained an independent manner of its own, with some 
influence of contemporary Sung Chinese masters. 

Kasuga Motomitsu founded the Kasuga school; more purely 
Japanese in character. 

Makimono, or long scrolls, beginning by Takajoshi; scenes of court 
life, war, adventure, etc. 

GLYPTIC ART. Kosho (no examples existing). Jocko, his son, 
whose genius made the beginning of the eleventh century one of the most 
notable epochs of Japanese sculpture. Both were influenced by Chinese 
T'ang and Sung sculptors. They and their descendants and pupils were 
known as the Nara Busshi, or Buddhist sculptors of Nara. Four 
great emperors built six great temples (1071-1141) and many small ones, 
and sculptors filled them with their statues; 3,000 statues are recorded in 
one temple. 

Lacquer. From the eleventh century lacquer was applied to and 
became part of temples. Mother-of-pearl inlay. 

LITERATURE. 

Yeshin Sozu, author and artist, his works published in 150 volumes. 
Died 1017. 

Sarashina Nikki, book of journeys, by a grand-daughter of the 
great Michezane, 1040. 

Uji Monogatari. Collection of stories by Uji Dainagon, a court 
noble. Many other tales of various kinds. 

Yeigwa Monogatari. Forty books of historical stories from c. 888- 
1088, chiefly concerning the Fugiwara family. Authorship uncertain. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Popes. — Rome. — Italy.— Venice. — Sicily. — Eastern (Byzantine) 

Empire. — Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. — Seljukian Turks. — Egypt. — France. — 

Spain. — Portugal. — Norway. — England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — 

China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 
Emperors and Kings of Rome and Germany 

The two great powers of Europe, the Empire and the Church. 

1 104 King Henry of Germany revolted against his father, Emperor 
Henry IV, who abdicated and died 1 to6. 

1 106 Henry V crowned emperor at Mainz. Dispute with the Pope re- 
garding his investiture. 

1 1 10 Came to Rome with his army. Countess Matilda took the oath 
of vassalage. Treaty with the Church. 



128 TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

1 1 1 1 Henry went to St. Peter's to be crowned. Riot, and Rome in revolt. 
He imprisoned the Pope for sixty-one days; was finally crowned 
by him. 

1 115 Matilda died, leaving her great estates to the Church. Henry pre- 
pared to seize them. The heritage long remained the practical 
object of the struggle between the spiritual and temporal powers. 

1 1 18 Henry V appointed an antipope and was excommunicated by 
Pope Gelasius II. 

1 121 Diet of Worms to settle the struggle between Henry V and the 
Church. After the disputes about investitures, which had lasted 
150 years, Henry V was received back into the Church. 

1 125 Lothair elected emperor at the death of Henry V, on his way back 
from an aggressive attack on Louis VI of France. 

1127 Conrad of Hohenstaufen, a nephew of Henry V. Set up as 
anti-king. Tried to obtain the imperial crown and the heritage 
of Matilda ; gave up the contest. {For Hohenstaufen genealogy, see 
Appendix XXI 'II.) 

1 133 Lothair crowned at Rome by Innocent II. Made great conces- 
sions to, and alliance with, the Church. Extended the German 
political supremacy and culture. Contest with Roger of Sicily in 
south of Italy. Died 1137 without heirs. 

1 138 Conrad III, former rival, elected emperor. Struggle with Henry 
the Proud, son-in-law of Lothair. Joined the second Crusade. 
Struggle between the Empire and the Church. 

1 152 Frederick I, Barbarossa, nephew of Conrad, elected. (See 
Appendix XXIII) Worked to re-establish the Empire of Rome on 
its ancient basis. Fierce struggle in Germany among the various 
feudatories, and a new departure in the territorial history of Ger- 
many. The Duchy of Austria established 1156. Frederick 
married Beatrice, heiress of Renaud, Count of Burgundy. Third 
Crusade. Incessant strife in Italy with the Italian cities, now 
grown independent and at war among themselves. Formation of 
Lombard League. War between the League and Frederick, also 
dispute and contest with the Pope Alexander. Strife in Germany 
with Henry the Lion, the husband of Matilda, a daughter of 
Henry II of England. Frederick died n 90, on his way back from 
third Crusade. 

1 190 Henry VI. Reigned too short a time to carry out his ideal of 
the Universal Empire. Contest with Tancred, a nephew of Henry's 
wife Constantia. 

1 194 Subdued Sicily. United it to Italy and was crowned at Palermo. 

1 197 Died at Messina in Sicily. 

1 197 Frederick II, son of Henry VI, a child. Already chosen king in 
Germany and succeeded in Sicily as hereditary king. Imperial crown 
disputed by his uncle, Philip of Swabia, and Otto of Saxony, 
son of Henry the Lion. Both Philip and Otto were crowned; war 
between them and time of confusion ensued. 
Struggles between the rival families of Welf and Weibligen during the 



chap, xx vi] TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 129 

time of Conrad III; origin of the famous antagonism of the Guelfs and 
Ghibellines. Weibligen, a village. Welf, a family name. 

GERMAN ARCHITECTURE. Romanesque and Lombardic attained 
full development and variety and advance of plastic art. Good bronze 
work. Baptismal font at Liege a good example. 

LITERATURE. 1140 Nibelungenlied took present form. Epic 
of Gundrum. Minnesingers. Edda Lays, Icelandic, collected in 
writing. Hortus Deliciarum. Wonderful illustrated encyclopaedia by the 
Abbess Erra, of the Convent of Odilienberg, Elsass. Destroyed at Strass- 
burg, 1870. Reproductions existing. 

POPES 

Pascal II involved in incessant strife regarding rights of investiture 
with Henry V, who imprisoned him until he confirmed the rights to the 
emperor in mi. Countess Matilda gave Pascal protection when he fled 
from Rome during time of Antipope Sylvester IV, who was installed by 
Henry V. 

1 1 18 Gelasius II, aged and infirm. Attacked by the Frangipani, escaped 

to Gaeta. Henry V installed Antipope Burdenus as Gre- 
gory VIII. Gelasius returned, both popes in Rome. Frangipani 
again attacked Gelasius; he escaped to France and died at Cluny. 

1 1 19 Calixtus II (Guido of Cluny) elected at Cluny. Excommunicated 
Henry V. Fall of the antipope. Peace made between Calixtus and 
Henry V. Diet of Worms. Truce between emperor and pope, each 
recognizing the other as a cardinal power. 

1 1 24 Honorius II elected. Contest between the Frangipani and 
Pierleoni families in Rome regarding his election. Invited Lothair 
to Rome to be crowned emperor. Excommunicated the Hohen- 
staufen brothers, Conrad and Frederick. Forced by Roger II of 
Sicily to recognize him as king of the two Sicilies. 

1 130 Two aspirants to Papal Chair on death of Honorius, Inno- 
cent II and Anaclite II. St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, 
favoured Innocent II, and he was brought to Rome by Lothair. 
Struggle continued till Anaclite died 1 1 38. Another antipope put 
up by his party, Victor IV, but he made peace with Innocent II, 
and unity was restored. 

Innocent II spent half of his pontificate in exile and military 
expeditions. Banished Arnold of Brescia as a heretic. 

1 143 Celestine II. 1144 Lucius II. Killed in a riot. 1145 Eu- 
genius III. Restored peace in Rome. 11 53 Anastasius IV. 
Four short and stormy reigns. The Roman Senate founded. 
Arnold of Brescia returned. 

1 154 Adrian IV, Englishman (Nicholas Breakspeare). Senate re- 
fused to recognize him, and he laid Rome under an interdict. 
Frederick I, Barbarossa, came to receive the crown from him, 
and held his stirrup. Arnold of Brescia burnt as a heretic on the 
Coronation day. 

K 



i 3 o TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

1159 Alexander III. A brilliant man. Enemy of Barbarossa; excom- 
municated him. Leagued with the Lombard cities. Victorious in 
the struggle with Barbarossa; legend says he placed his foot on 
the emperor's neck at their reconciliation in Venice in front of 
S. Marco. 

1 181 Lucius III. 1 185 Urban III. 1187 Gregory VIII. 1187 
Clement III. 1191 Celestine III. These last five did not 
reign long enough to make any mark, and were much hampered by 
strife with the Romans and Senate. 

1 198 Innocent III. A very powerful pope (see page 141). 

ROME 

Absence of culture in Rome during time of continual struggle between 
emperors and Church and the people. Towards the end of the century an 
active zeal for art arose in harmony with the general impulse throughout 
Italy. 

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE. Chiefly restoration and decoration of 
existing churches after the fire of Guiscard. Cloisters of S. Lorenzo Fuori. 
Rise of family schools of Roman artists (see Appendix XXVI), who 
began the work under Pascal II. Guido and Petronius executed frescoes 
for him in the church of SS. Quattro Coronati and others. Frescoes in 
S. Pietro at Toscanella. 

Opus Alexandrinum = mosaic decoration of churches by Lorenzo, 
founder of the Cosmati family of the following (thirteenth) century. (See 
Appendix XX VI) 

LITERATURE. Mirabilia Urbis Romae, work of an unknown 
twelfth- century archaeologist; describes the city and its monuments at the 
time. Compilation of Liber Pontificalis continued with varying char- 
acter and wealth of detail. 

ITALY 

Twelfth century an important century, turbulent, but a period of de- 
velopment of the essential features of mediaeval civilization and great 
monastic activity, which exercised much influence on the life of the time and 
also disseminated art and letters and strengthened the Church in many ways: 
at the same time many definite heretical sects crystallized, influenced by 
Peter de Bruys, Peter Valdez, and the poor men of Lyons, and 
Abelard and his followers, Arnold of Brescia, Peter Lombard, and 
Averroes the Arab, philosopher and physician ( = Ibn Raschid). 

St. Dominic, b. 1170, d. 1221. St. Francis of Assisi, b. 1182, 
d. 1220. 

Lombard League formed. Pisa, Florence, Genoa, and Venice obtained 
high positions, and Milan became an independent republic. Revival of 
study of laws, civil and ecclesiastical, and flourishing schools at Padua, 
Ravenna, Bologna, and Rome. Lombardic architecture flourishing. 
Pisa Leaning Tower, 1 174-1350, and Cathedral, finished 11 18 (restored 
1597, after a fire). Many other cathedrals. Early plastic art, at Modena, 
Verona, Ferrara, Parma, Piacenza, Lucca, Siena, etc., and bronze work. 



chap, xxvi] TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 131 

VENICE 
Venice constantly engaged in Crusades. 
1 102 Doge Faliero went to the Holy Land. 

1 1 17 Doge Domenico Michieli. Disputes with the emperor at Con- 
stantinople, John II. 

1 192 Doge Enrico Dandolo headed the Crusade at the age of ninety; 
stormed Constantinople. Beginning of the Eastern supremacy of 
Venice. 
Campanile of S. Marco finished; transformed by Montagnano, four- 
teenth century. Many churches built. 

1 105 Doges' palace rebuilt after a fire. Repeatedly altered and 
restored. 

SICILY 

1101 Roger II. Consolidated his father's conquests, became master of 
Apulia and Calabria. Took the title of king 1130. A wise ruler. 
Built the cathedral at Cefalu and Cappella Palatina, Palermo. 
Invaded Greece. 

1 150 William I (the Bad), his son. La Ziza at Palermo a relic of his 
reign. 

1 166 William II (the Good). His mother, Margaret of Navarre, 
regent till her son came of age. He appointed his tutor, Walter 
of the Mill (an Englishman), prime minister. William was much 
beloved. Took part in the Crusades. Sided with Pope Alex- 
ander III in his struggle with Frederick Barbarossa; was defeated in 
1 185 in his war with the Eastern Byzantine Church. Built the 
cathedral at Monreale. Married Joan, daughter of Henry II of 
England. 

1 190 Tancred, Count of Lecce, a natural son of Robert of Apulia, who 
was the eldest son of Roger II. Constant warfare with the 
Emperor Henry VI. Tancred died 1194. 

1 194 Sibylla, his widow, regent and guardian of his son William III. 

1 194 Henry VI, the Emperor, took Sicily, and was crowned at Palermo. 
Civil war followed, subdued with great cruelty. He died and was 
buried at Palermo 1197. 

1 197 Frederick II. Henry's three-year-old son proclaimed king. 
Constantia, his mother, endeavoured to repair the severe actions of 
her husband in Sicily. 

EASTERN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE 
During the latter part of the reign of Alexius I the Empire recovered 
temporarily, but was decaying gradually. He died n 18. Anna Com- 
nena, his daughter, after the failure of her plot to disinherit her brother 
John II, and place her husband on the throne, wrote her father's life, 
"The Alexiad" in 15 volumes. 

1 1 18 John II Comnenus, called John the Good. Constant foreign 
wars; disputes with Venice. 

1 143 Manuel I Comnenus. Brilliant man. Treaties with Genoa and 



132 TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

Venice, subsequent war with Venice. War with Roger of Sicily, 
who invaded Greece and plundered Thebes and Corinth. 

1180 Alexius II, a boy of twelve; his mother, Mary of Antioch, regent. 
She was deposed by Andronicus Comnenus, a cousin of Manuel I, 
who murdered Alexius II and married his widow, Agnes of France. 

1 183 Andronicus I Comnenus, usurped the throne. Rebellions in 
the provinces. Put to death by the people with great cruelty. 
Sicilian fleet and army invaded the Empire under Tancred. 

1 185 Isaac II Angelus declared successor. A worse period of decline. 
He lavished his revenue in building churches and collecting relics 
and Icons, though a vicious man. Defeated the Sicilians. Cyprus 
and Bulgaria freed themselves. Turks advancing. 

1 1 95 Alexius III Angelus deposed his brother Isaac, and was placed 
on the throne. Equally incompetent and extravagant. Wife, 
Euphrosyne. Disorder and anarchy of the Empire. 

LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM 

1 100 Baldwin succeeded Godfrey of Bouillon. The Crusading State 

attained its limits and organization. 
1 1 18 Baldwin II, his nephew. 
1 130 Fulk, Count of Anjou, his son-in-law. Under him the Latin state 

attained its zenith. Fulk's son, Geoffrey the Handsome, Planta- 

genet, married Matilda, daughter of Henry I of England, and 

became father of Henry II of England. 
1 143 Baldwin III. Married a daughter of Emperor Manuel. 
1 1 74 Baldwin IV, a leper. 1185 Baldwin V, a child, son of 

Sibyl (sister of Baldwin III). Crown disputed at his death in 1186. 

A short civil war followed; Guy of Lusignan, Sibyl's second husband, 

obtained the crown. 
t 187 Saladin took possession of Jerusalem, and won nearly all Palestine 

from the Christians. 
1 191 Capture of Acre by the Crusaders. Crown of Jerusalem disputed 

between Guy of Lusignan, Conrad of Montferrat, and Henry 

of Champagne (the last had been left by Richard of England as 

King). 1 192 Truce with Turks. 
1 197 Amalric. Married Isabella, widow of Henry of Champagne, 

through whom he held his right to the crown. Ruled vigorously 

and successfully. 

SELJUKIAN TURKS 

A line of Sultans reigning in Asia Minor over lands won from the 
Empire. Called themselves Sultans of Rome. 
1 171 Saladin put down the Fatimite Dyn. in Egypt, and restored the 

orthodox Caliphate of Bagdad. 
1 187 Took Jerusalem, won nearly all Palestine, and great Crusade 
followed. 



chap, xxvi] TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 133 

1 191 Acre lost by Saladin. 1192 Truce and end of third Crusade, 
but Jerusalem remained under Mohammedan rule. Christian 
pilgrims allowed access to Holy Sepulchre. Richard of England 
left Palestine. Saladin died 1194 at Damascus. 

EGYPT 

1 1 71 Fatimite Dyn. of Caliphs ended by Saladin. Many of them had 

been men of cultivation, but their period was not very productive of 

scholars. They encouraged decorative Art to produce costly and 

beautiful objects for their luxurious palaces and mosques. 

Saladin. Popular in Egypt. Built the Citadel fortress, and also 

many theological colleges (medresas) at Cairo and Alexandria to restore the 

orthodox Abbasid faith. None of these remain, but later mosques were 

built on their plan. 

FRANCE 
Capetian Kings. 

1 100 Philip I crowned his son Louis, and shared his power with him. 

1 108 Louis VI (the Fat). An able, vigorous ruler. Feudal power 
great. Constant struggle with the crown. Supported the Norman 
barons in their war with Henry I of England. 11 19 Defeated 
by Henry. His son Louis crowned when nine years old by 
Innocent II. 

1 137 Louis VII (the Pious). Much less vigorous man and a lover of 
peace. Feudal party very strong, involving constant warfare. 
1 147 Went to the Crusade with his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine. 

1 1 54 Eleanor divorced, withdrew to her own dominion, and shortly 
after married Henry of Anjou, afterwards Henry II of England. 
Louis VII and Henry II of England constantly at war. Louis VII 
married three times. (1) Eleanor of Aquitaine, had two daughters, 
Mary and Alice, they married two brothers, Henry of Champagne 
and Theobald of Blois. (2) Constance, daughter of the King of 
Castile, had one daughter, Margaret, who married Prince Henry 
of England, afterwards Henry III. (3) Alice, daughter of Thibaut, 
Count of Champagne, and sister of Henry of Champagne, had one 
son Philip, and a daughter Agnes, who married Alexius Comnenus, 
son of the Emperor of Constantinople and afterwards Andronicus 
Comnenus. 

1 1 80 Philip II (Augustus). A strong man and resolute to recover 
the power of the crown, which had sunk under his father's rule. 
Fierce Feudal factions made incessant wars. At war with 
England all his life. Among the greatest of the founders of the 
later French royalty. Married (1) Isabella of Hainault; (2) Inge- 
borg of Denmark; (3) Agnes of Meran. 

1 1 90 Went to the Crusade led by St. Bernard. In obedience to Papal 
appeal numbers of French warriors, led by Simon de Montfort, 
Duke of Burgundy, took up arms against the heretical Albigenses 
in the South of France. 



134 TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART 

Lombardic and Romanesque style of architecture obtained full 
development. 

Gothic style arose in the He de France about the time of Philip 
Augustus (ex. Notre Dame), and subsequently spread over the whole of 
the western world. Notre Dame founded 1163 on the site of a fourth 
century church; consecrated 1182; nave not finished till thirteenth century. 
Has been frequently altered. 

Chartres 1144. West front and tower built after the fire of 1134, 
three doorways with fine sculpture, 700 figures and foliage, etc., showing 
Lombardic influence. Bayeux Tapestry representing the Norman 
conquest of England. Limoges enamels. Cluny at the height of pros- 
perity, and 2,000 religious establishments all over Europe acknowledged 
allegiance. 

LITERATURE. Provencal Literature in the vernacular rose in the 
twelfth century, and spread over the greater portion of Southern France, 
and then into Italy and Spain, taking the place previously held by Latin 
literature. Troubadours frequented the courts of France, Italy, and 
Spain, the palmiest time in their history. Romances and fabliaux; 
bestiaries and lapidaries ; the earliest versified bestiary written by 
Philippe de Thaun. Earliest French religious drama surviving. 



Abelard. 1079-1142. 

St. Bernard. 1091-1153. 

Chrestien de Troyes. 1 140-1227. 

Robert de Borron. 

Benoist de Sainte More, n 54-1 181 

Paris University received its first royal charter from Philip Augustus 



Bertrand de Born. 

Geoffroi de Villehardouin. 1160- 

1213. 
Geoffroi de Vinsauf. 117 0-1205? 



SPAIN 

1 109 Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile died. His daughter, Urraca, 
married to Alfonso I of Aragon, set up her son (by a previous 
marriage with Count Raymond of Burgundy) as Alfonso VII, and 
Castile and Aragon were separated. Alfonso I, her husband, re- 
tained Aragon and Navarre. Alfonso VII, her son, retained 
Castile, Leon, and Galicia, and called himself Emperor of Spain. 
Constant struggle between the descendants of the two Alfonsos all 
the century. Moors also fighting for power; they lost Zaragoza in 
1 1 18 and Lerida in 1149. 

ARCHITECTURE. Burgundian Style, i.e., Romanesque and 
Lombardic coming through Cluny and Citeaux, was continued. Pointed, 
or Gothic, style introduced. Leon Cathedral, one of the purest and 
most beautiful, begun 1181, completed 1303. At the close of the century 
native architects and builders were working, but they derived their inspira- 
tion and teaching from France. Tarragona Cathedral commenced 
and continued till the seventeenth century, a good example of late Roman- 
esque, transition to Gothic, and finally Baroque. 



chap, xxvi] TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 135 

Portico della Gloria added to the Cathedral of Santiago de Com- 
postela in 1188 by Maestro Mateo, fine sculpture. Crypt of same 
cathedral. Abbey Church of Veruela, 1 181. Many churches begun in 
the Romanesque style assumed an early Gothic character before they were 
finished. Moorish Architecture, Alcazar Palace at Seville and the 
mosque (now the cathedral). 

Early small portable altars or folding tablets carried by Christian Gen- 
erals in their campaigns against the Moors ; these developed into the great 
Polychrome Retablos or screens of the Spanish Cathedrals. 

LITERATURE. 11 50 Mystery of Magian Kings accepted as 
the oldest Castilian text, a fragment of short semi -liturgical plays for 
Epiphany. 

PORTUGAL 
Rising rapidly. War of Independence against Alfonso VII of Spain. 
1 143 Affonso Henriques assumed the title of king. Carried on con- 
tinual struggles against the Mohammedans, assisted by his son Dom 
Sancho. 

1 185 Dom Sancho, called "Provoador," or "City builder." Good 
administrator. Continued war with Mohammedans. 

NORWAY 
1 103 Magnus Barefoot fell in Ireland. Was succeeded by his three sons, 

Olaf IV died in youth, Sigurd and Eystein reigned long together. 
1107-ino Sigurd visited the Holy Land and Constantinople as a 

warrior pilgrim. 1122 Eystein died. Sigurd, sole king. 
1 130 Sigurd died. Along period of internal strife ensued. His son, 

Magnus, forced to share the rule with Harold Gilchrist, who 

killed Magnus. 
1 136 Harold Gilchrist slain by a pretender. Succeeded by his sons. 

Civil war between them and numerous competitors for the crown. 

Inge I, Eystein II, Haakon III, and Magnus V. 
1 152 The brothers reconciled by Nicholas Breakspeare (afterwards Pope 

Adrian IV), who had been sent by Pope Eugenius III to arrange the 

numerous ecclesiastical affairs of the country. He founded the 

archbishopric of Drontheim. 
1 162 Magnus V (Erlingson). Alone. Rise of Sverri Sigurdson, an ambi- 
tious adventurer. Opposed Magnus, who was defeated and drowned. 

1 186 Sverri Sigurdson. A new epoch of history begins with him. A 
good statesman, and in many respects in advance of his age. He 
prevented the formation of a powerful aristocracy, and repudiated 
the domination of the Church, holding that the king derived his 
title from God. Had to fight for his kingdom all through his reign. 

ENGLAND 

1 100 Henry I (Beauclerc). Dispute regarding investiture of clergy. 

Anselm went to Rome. Henry a vigorous administrator, continuing 

the system of government instituted by the Conqueror. Struggle 

with Normans, who were assisted by Louis VI. Henry married 



136 TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

Matilda, a daughter of Malcolm of Scotland and his wife Margaret, 
who was the sister of Eadgar yEtheling. Matilda, the daughter of 
Henry and Matilda, married, first the Emperor Henry V, and at 
his death Geoffrey Plantagenet, son of Fulk the Black, Count 
of Anjou. 

1 135 Stephen of Blois, son of Adela (a daughter of William the Con- 
queror) and Stephen of Blois. Reign of misrule and disorder. 
Matilda, daughter of Henry I, landed 1141 with her son Henry 
Plantagenet, afterwards Henry II. 

1 154 Henry II. Married to Eleanor of Aquitaine (the divorced wife of 
Louis VII) in 1152, and thus acquired Aquitaine in addition to his 
possessions of Normandy and Anjou. Betrothed his two infant sons 
to daughters of Louis VII, and a third to Constance, heiress of 
Brittany. Thus most of France was in his power. Becket of 
Canterbury murdered 11 70. Fabric of our judicial constitution 
commenced by Henry. 

1 189 Richard Cceur de Lion. Was four years absent at the third 
Crusade. At enmity with French king, Philip Augustus. Built 
Chateau Gaillard in Normandy. Captured by Leopold of 
Austria, 1193, on his way home from the Crusade. Returned 1194. 

1 199 John, his brother. Acknowledged in England and Normandy, 
but Anjou, Maine, and Touraine did homage to Arthur, son of 
John's late brother, Geoffrey. Normandy lost at siege of Chateau 
Gaillard in 1204. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. 

Lombardic Norman architecture continuing; ex. Peterborough 
Cathedral. Iffley church, fine ornament. 

Durham Cathedral, 1093-1193. Shows the passing of Lombardic 
Norman into the transition leading to Gothic. William of Sens, a 
French architect, built the choir of Canterbury Cathedral, Norman 
transitional to early Gothic, 1174-1184. Some early English Gothic 
beginning towards the end of the century. 

Polished Purbeck marble came into use for Gothic shafts and capitals, 
and also for statues for niches and tombs. 

Mural paintings for churches were executed early in the century. 
Illuminated MSS. (see Miniatures Art Supplement). 

Art of embroidery at a high level. 

LITERATURE flourished under the Norman and Angevin kings. 

Literature of Romance took root in the court of Henry I. The 
Arthurian legends took shape in the poems of the Round Table of 
Walter Mapes, a Welshman, who wove together the Arthurian and San 
Graal legends. The Arthurian legends grew out of the " History of the 
Britons" by Geoffrey of Monmouth, 1110-1154. Translated by 
Alfred Beverly into English, and by two Normans, Gaimar and Wace, 
into French verse. Gerald de Bari, called Giraldus Cambrensis, 
originator of political and ecclesiastical pamphlets, which played a part in 



chap, xxvi] TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. 137 

the struggle between Henry II and the nation. Layamon wrote a great 
work in English verse, a monument of language, only fifty words of 
Norman in thirty thousand lines. Bestiary of Philippe de Thaun, a 
Norman, who lived and wrote in England during reign of Henry Beauclerc. 
Play of St. Catherine at Dunstable, n 19. 



Wace. 

Gaimar. fl. 1147-1151. 

William of Malmesbury. 1095-1142. 



Hilarius (three Latin dramas). 
John of Salisbury. 1110-1180. 
Anglo-Norman Ballads. 



SCOTLAND 

1 100 Malcolm III. His daughter Matilda married Henry I of England. 

1 107 Alexander I succeeded. His younger brother, Earl David, 
claimed the country south of the Firths of Forth and Clyde. Dis- 
pute with Archbishop of Canterbury about the consecration of the 
Bishop of St. Andrews. 

1 124 David I succeeded his brother, and the country was again under 
one king. Introduction of Norman feudalism commenced. Civil 
war, and war with Stephen of England in support of Matilda, 
daughter of Henry I, and her relations. Charters granted to monas- 
teries and churches. Church of Scotland brought in accord with 
prevailing forms of Christendom. 

1 153 Malcolm IV succeeded. A young boy. Civil wars. 

1 165 William the Lion succeeded. Invaded England, was taken 
prisoner, and five castles given to Henry II for his ransom. Con- 
cessions annulled by Richard I. Internal conflicts. 

IRELAND 

Internal feuds between O'Briens, O'Connors, O'Neils, and O'Lochlins. 
1167 Derwent of MacMurrough, King of Leinster, deposed. Sought. 
yy^trT aid from Henry II. ^J — 

1 170 Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, restored Derwe«t, married his 
daughter Eva, and conquered the country. Henry II in Ireland. 
Received Irish submission, and the Pope bestowed the sovereignty 
on him. 
1 185 John, son of Henry II, made Governor. Alienated the people and 
was recalled. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Chapel of Cormac on rock of 
Cashel, Lombardic Norman style. Irish crosses, Lombardic influence in 
design and sculpture; ex. cross of Muredach. 

INDIA 
Northern. 

Several feeble successors of Mohammed Ghazni reigned obscurely, 
1 1 76-1 186. Mohammed Ghori established a Mohammedan kingdom 
in India extending from Peshawar to the Bay of Bengal. Rajput rule 
gradually extinguished. Golden age of Rajput architecture between tenth 
and twelfth centuries. Great numbers of magnificent stone temples had 



138 TWELFTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvi 

sprung up, afterwards used as mosques. With the Mohammedan invasion 
the mediaeval history of Hinduism ends. 

Southern. 

1 1 26 Somesvara succeeded Vikramaditya on the Chalukyan throne. 
The Hoysalas, a feudatory family, rose in power, and made repeated 
attacks on the kingdom. 

1 191 The Western Chalukya Dyn. ended, and Ballala II, the 
Hoysala chief, assumed the royal title. 

The Eastern Chalukyas continued to rule united with some other 
Dyns. 

LITERATURE. Ramanuja, the great Vedanta reformer, founded a 
sect bound by strict rules. Subsequent revival of Hinduism largely owing 
to him. He wrote in Sanskrit, but the Vernacular literature concerning 
Rama arose in this century. 

CHINA (Sung Dyn.) 

Southern Sung Dyn. A series of struggles with the Kins, or 
Golden Tartars, of the north, who were reigning concurrently in Northern 
China. 

1 1 27 Kaotsong (Emperor). He removed the capital from Nanking to 
Lin An in consequence of the repeated incursions of the Kins. 
His times and his successors troubled by them. 

LITERATURE. Cheng-Ch-iao (1108) wrote essays, poetry, and 
history. Chu Hsi, Buddhist priest, voluminous writer; his name still 
a household word in literary China. 

ART. See page 116 for Artists' names, etc. 

JAPAN (Heian period ended and Kamakura period began) 

Several emperors abdicated. 1155 Succession disputed. 

1 156 Struggle between the rival families of Taira (Heiki) and Mina- 
mota (Genji) began. Called the wars of the Red and White 
Flags. 

1 180 Yoritomo, head of the Minamota, fixed his head-quarters at 
Kamakura. As he was occupied with the affairs of government, 
his brother Yoshitsune conducted the campaign against the 
Taira and vanquished them in the naval battle of Dan-no-Ura, 1185. 

1 192 Yoritomo was made Shogun, or Mayor of the Palace, the first 
of that office and title which lasted until 1868; all the Shogunsand 
Tycoons who ruled subsequently as his successors were of Minamota 
blood. Beginning of a military feudalism. Yoritomo an able 
ruler, but cruel. Killed his brother Yoshitsune, who was very 
popular, and of whom he was jealous. Yoshitsune was worshipped 
as a god by the Ainos, and is the ideal of character of every 
Japanese boy. His effigy is annually displayed at the boys' great 
festival of " Flags." Glorified in art and song. A national hero. 

1 199 Yoritomo died. Struggle commenced between his family and his 
wife's family, the Hojo. 



chaps. xxvi-vn] TWELFTHS THIRTEENTH CENTURIES 139 

ART. The Takumara and Kasuga Schools coalesced, and the 
Yamato, or National, School, independent of foreign influence, developed 
fully. Kakuyu, known as Toba Sojo, a Buddhist priest-painter, a cari- 
caturist, painted frolicking animals satirizing the monks and clergy; also 
painted solemn subjects like " Nirvana of Buddha." Very dramatic and 
vigorous style. Caricature became a definite section of art called Toba-ye. 
Mitsunga, scroll painter, very animated figures and fine brush line 
drawing. Nobuzane (1177-1265) equally noted for poetry and painting; 
portraits of poets by his hand. Lacquer received new development of 
decorative design, figures, flowers, birds, dragons, etc., and was applied to 
temples. 

From twelfth century fine work was lavished on armour, and especially 
Sword furniture. Munesake took the name of Miochin, member 
of a family of metal-workers who traced their line to prehistoric times. 
He made the famous suit of armour for Yoshitsune preserved in the 
temple at Nara. Nara Puppets, carved ivory miniatures. Wood became 
the material commonly used for statues, usually covered with gold foil. 

LITERATURE. History of the wars of the Red and White Flags 
called Gempei Seisuiki. Heiji Monogatari and other histories. 

During Kamakura period (1 186-1332) learning declined. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Holland. — Hanseatic League. — Popes. — Sicily. — Italy. — 
Florence. — Pisa. — Venice. — Genoa. — Milan. — Siena. — Orvieto. — Assisi.— Eastern 
(Byzantine) Empire and Latin and Greek divisions of Eastern Empire. — Frankish rulers 
in Greece. — Russia. — Seljukian Turks. — Egypt. — Spain. — France. — Norway. —Eng- 
land. — Europe generally. — Scotland. — Ireland. — Wales. — India. —China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 

Emperors and Kings of Germany and Italy. 

The election of Frederick II, son of Henry VI (a child), seemed for- 
gotten in the disputes for the crown between his uncle, Philip of Swabia, 
and Otto of Saxony, son of Henry the Lion. Ten years of civil war devas- 
tated Germany. Both crowned. Philip murdered in 1208, and Otto 
formally elected. 

12 1 2 Frederick II, son of Henry VI, again elected and crowned Em- 
peror. Joined together many crowns. Called the " wonder of the 
world." Civil war all his reign in Italy and Germany. Renewed 
Imperial claims over Lombardy. The Lombard cities renewed 
their league. Burgundy began to slip away from the Empire. 
Guelfs and Ghibellines fought fiercely. Frederick, a man of 
great natural gifts, and in learning and thought far above his age. 
A warrior, troubadour, and philosopher. Married (1) Constance of 
Aragon; (2) Iolanthe de Lusignan, daughter of King John de 



140 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvii 

Brienne of Jerusalem; (3) Isabella, daughter of Henry III of Eng- 
land; (4) Bianca Lancia, by whom he had previously been the 
father of Manfred. 

1250 Conrad IV, his son, chosen King of Germany and succeeded in 
Sicily. Reckoned king by the Ghibellines in Germany and Italy, 
but was excommunicated by Pope Innocent IV and never crowned 
emperor. Power of the Empire, as the leading state and centre of 
European history, declining, and the power of the Papacy growing. 

1254 Conrad IV died, leaving Conraddin, a child of two, his heir. 
Regent, Margrave of Hohenburg. Period from 125410 1273 called 
the Great interregnum. No emperor or king acknowledged by 
all parts of Germany or the Empire, though several were chosen. 
Aspirants for the crown were Richard, Earl of Cornwall; 
Alfonso X of Castile; and William, King of Holland. 
Conraddin died in 1268 and the Hohenstaufen Dynasty ended. 

1273 Rudolph, Count of Hapsburg, chosen emperor and crowned 
at Aachen. The interregnum had been a time of great confusion; 
the Empire lost its hold over neighbouring countries, every sort of 
wickedness was rife, and men felt a king or emperor must be again 
chosen. Rudolph, a brave and wise man, restored peace, and was 
founder of the House of Hapsburg of Austria, from which so 
many kings and emperors subsequently followed. 

1292 Adolf of Nassau chosen King of the Romans. Contest with 
Albert of Hapsburg, son of Rudolf. Adolf killed in battle. 

1298 Albert I of Hapsburg, son of Rudolf, became Emperor. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. In Germany, Lombardic and 
Romanesque architecture continued. Gothic architecture and sculpture 
came in through the Cistercians returning from France where they had gone 
to work. At first a mixture of Lombardic and Gothic (ex. Bamberg) 
followed by complete Gothic (ex. Cologne 1248, completed 1880). A 
flourishing period of German Romanesque, Lombardic, and Gothic sculp- 
ture; ex. Bamberg, Naumberg, Freiburg, Strassburg, Magdeburg, Bruns- 
wick, etc., etc. 

Bronze work not so progressive as in the last century, but some very 
fine work ; ex. the font at Hildesheim. 

The sketch-book of Villard of Honnecourt, architect, gives a record 
of the versatility of the efforts and variety of the interest of the work of 
the period. 

Ivories similar in style to the French. 

LITERATURE. Walter von der Vogelweide. The Minne- 
singers. Meister Eckhard. Wolfram von Eschenbach. His 
epic poem, " Parzival," the basis of Wagner's drama. Some late medi- 
aeval Easter plays. 

HOLLAND 

1299 End of the period of the first line of counts who had ruled for 
nearly 400 years. Succession of John of Avennes. Holland 
received him, Zeeland did not, long struggle ensued. 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 141 

LITERATURE. Dutch literature known as Middle Dutch com- 
menced in the thirteenth century. Jacob van Maerlant, c. 1225-1291. 
Jan van Boendale, 1280-1365. Jan van Heelu, epic war poems. 

HANSEATIC LEAGUE 

1241 Hanseatic League. The great trading alliance of towns, and an 
early representation of the mediaeval feudal spirit. Origin of name 
of Hansa unknown. Became a great power in Europe. 

POPES 

Innocent III. One of the most powerful of the popes. Under him 

papal authority attained the highest point of influence, and the Empire 

reduced to dependence on it. A man of unblemished private character. 

Granted the crown to Otto IV. Deprived him of it to bestow it on 

Frederick II. Tuscan cities formed a new league under his protection. 

Pisa alone holding aloof. Favoured the early work of St. Dominic, and 

authorized the order of St. Francis. Crusade against the Albigenses. 

Introduced the Inquisition. Died 1216. 

1 2 16 Honorius III. Crowned Frederick II. Authorized the order of 
St. Dominic, and renewed the order of St. Francis. A gentle 
earnest man, but intent on renewing the Crusades, and also on 
extirpating the Albigenses. Struggle with Frederick II over 
Imperial claims. 

1227 Gregory IX. Frederick's deadliest enemy, excommunicated him 
when he made peace with the Sultan, causing renewal of strife 
between the Papacy and Empire. Forbade Frederick to take part in 
the Crusade when he had claimed the crown of Jerusalem through 
his wife, Iolanthe of Brienne. Placed himself at head of Lombard 
League in opposition to Frederick, and excommunicated him again. 
Tried to stir up a revolt in Germany, but failed. Offered the crown 
to Robert of Artois, equally in vain*. Special patron of St. 
Dominic and St. Francis, and strenuous foe of all heretics. 

1 241 Celestine IV. Died in seventeen days. Holy See vacant for 
fifteen months. 

1243 Innocent IV elected. Continued the policy of Gregory IX in 
opposing Frederick. Fled to Lyons and lived there. French king, 
Louis IX, tried to mediate, as the continual struggle was fatal to the 
prospects of a great crusade. Fierce contests between Guelfs and 
Ghibellines in Italy, towns destroying one another. Continued 
the hostility to Conrad IV. Returned to Rome, signed a peace 
with Manfred, but offered the crown of Sicily to Edmund of 
England, son of Henry III. 

1254 Alexander IV, his nephew. Excommunicated Manfred and 
renewed offer of Sicilian throne to Edmund of England. Manfred 
held his own, and it led to a Ghibelline revival. 

1 261 Urban IV, a Frenchman. Lived mostly at Orvieto and Viterbo, 



142 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvn 

the Ghibellines being ascendant in Rome. Offered the Sicilian 
crown to Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis. 

1264 Clement IV. A capable, strong man. Crowned Charles and his 
wife, Beatrice, King and Queen of Sicily. Invaded Manfred's 
dominions. Manfred killed in battle. Charles became king of the 
two Sicilies. 

1268 Vacancy of the Papacy for three years on death of Clement IV. 

1 27 1 Gregory X. Wise and peace loving. Tried to restore peace but 
died shortly. Followed by Adrian V, John XXI, and Inno- 
cent V. Short reigns, leaving little trace. 

1277 Nicholas III. Masterful prince of the Church. Made peace with 
Rudolf of Hapsburg, the emperor renouncing all claims to the 
inheritance of Countess Matilda and all the Imperial pretensions in 
Italy, and recognizing the Pope's claims to bestow the Imperial 
crown. 

1 28 1 Martin IV, a Frenchman. Ally of Charles of Anjou, lived at 
Viterbo with him. 

1285 Honorius IV (Savelli). Exalted his family at the expense of 
the Orsini. 

1288 Nicholas IV. Raised the Colonna family to power as a counter- 
poise to the two families of the Savelli and Orsini. 

1292 No election for two years on death of Nicholas IV. Various 
predominant factions too well equipoised. 

1294 Celestine V, an aged hermit of great piety, elected, though he 
vehemently refused the honour. Abdicated in five months, and 
returned to the desert. 

1294 Boniface VIII. Fearing schism, he captured Celestine, who died 
in confinement, 1296. Boniface, one of the great representatives of 
the age of Dante. An opponent of Edward I of England and 
Philip IV of France. He formally declared SS. Ambrose, Gre- 
gory, Jerome, and Augustine " Doctors of the Church." The 
power of the Church growing as the Imperial power declined. 

Architecture and Art in Rome. S. Lorenzo Fuori reconstructed 
by Honorius III and the frescoes in the porch executed. The Campanile 
and portico of Sta Maria Maggiore built by Nicholas IV, and the mosaics in 
the apse added by Torriti. The Cosmati and Vassallectus (see 
Appendix XXVI) working in decorative sculpture and mosaic inlay and 
pavements. The cloisters of S. Paolo by Vassallectus. Beautiful sepul- 
chral monuments and decorative marble work. Arnolfo of Florence 
worked in Rome. The revival of painting began with Cavallini. His 
great frescoes in Sta Cecilia, c. 1290, and his mosaics in Sta Maria Tras- 
tevere. Towers of the fortified palaces of the noble families; ex. Torre 
delle Milizie. 

SICILY 

1250 Manfred, a son of Frederick II, succeeded. Inherited his father's 
qualities as warrior, sage, and poet. Naples and Sicily enjoyed 
peace under him. Urban IV offered the crown to Charles of 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 143 

Anjou, who accepted it and invaded Manfred's Italian dominions. 
Manfred was killed in the battle of Benevento in 1266. Immor- 
talized by Dante. 

1266 Charles of Anjou crowned by Clement IV. Oppressive rule. 
1282 The Sicilian Vespers massacre released the Sicilians from 
it; they called in Peter of Aragon, who took Sicily. His wife 
was Constance, a daughter of Manfred. Charles retained the con- 
tinental territory, and the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily were 
divided and called "the two Sicilies." 

1296 Frederick, son of Peter of Aragon and Constance, succeeded. 
His brother, James, tried to restore Charles of Anjou to the crown. 
War in Sicily. Boniface VIII confirmed the title of Frederick. 



ITALY 

Guelfs and Ghibellines fighting in Central and Northern Italy 
throughout the century. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Dawn of early Italian Renaissance 
sculpture began with Niccolo Pisano (died 1278). For sculptors see 
Art Supplement. For dawn of Painting see Art Supplement. Many magnifi- 
cent cathedrals rising, and Italian Gothic architecture began. Cosma- 
tesque Mosaic for pavements and decoration of churches {see Appen- 
dix XXVI for Cosmati family). 

LITERATURE. A good many tales reflecting the legendary literature 
of France, and great development of poetry. 

Thomas Aquinas. 1227-1274. 
Brunetto Latini. 1 230-1 294. 
Guido Cavalcanti. 1250-1301. 
Sordello. fi. 1260. 
Guido Guinicelli. d. 1276. 

Gesta Romanorum. Latin collection of tales and anecdotes of various 
countries, European and Oriental. Authorship uncertain. 



Guido della Colonna. d. 1287. 
Dante. 1265-1321. 
Cimo da Pistoia. 12 70-1336. 
Fra Guittone d'Arezzo (early Italian 
prose). 



FLORENCE 

Florence became the most important community in Central Italy, the 
Guilds rose rapidly, and manufactures grew greatly. The " Arti Minori " 
constituted 1202. Bitter feuds among the nobles, who, after the murder 
of Buondelmonte in 12 15 divided into the rival camps of the Guelfs 
and Ghibellines, and Florence was brought into collision with other 
towns. 
1225 Guelfs gained the supremacy. 1260 Ghibellines, assisted by 

Siena and Pisa, triumphed at the great battle of Montaperto. 

Florence saved from destruction by the intervention of Farinata 

degli Uberti. 
1266 Guelfs gained the power, elected Charles of Anjou Signor for ten 



i 4 4 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvn 

years, a turning-point in the history of the city. The Guilds 

became a great power in the state. 
1287 War against Pisa and Arezzo. 1289 Florence gained the victory 

over the Ghibellines at the great battle of Campaldino. War 

ended, 1292. 
1295 Dante Alighieri entered political life and spoke in the general 

council of the commune. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE rose rapidly. 

1294 Erection of present cathedral voted by public vote; first architect 
Arnolfo di Cambio, who also remodelled the Baptistery, 
which, previously, had been the cathedral. 1278 Sta Maria 
Novella (some portion may be 1246). Sta Croce begun, 1294. 
Bargello begun, 1250. 

1298 The Palazzo Vecchio commenced for the Signoria by Arnolfo 
di Cambio. (For painters, see Art Supplement of European 
painters.) 

PISA 

Active building period. Tuscan Gothic; ex. Santa Maria della 
Spina 1230, and Campo Santo 1278. Pulpit in the Baptistery by 
Niccolo Pisano, the starting-point of Italian Renaissance sculpture, 1260. 

VENICE 

The taking of Constantinople, 1204, an epoch-making event in the 
history of Venice; her greatness rose from this period. The Crusades 
greatly enriched Venice, the bronze horses of S. Marco and much art 
treasure brought into the city from Constantinople and other places. 
1205 Doge Enrico Dandolo died at Constantinople at the age of 

ninety-eight. 
1252 War with Genoa for twelve years for naval and commercial 

supremacy. Genoa defeated at Trepani, 1264. 

Doge Renier Zeno ruled during the war, 1253-1268. 
1268 Doge Lorenzo Tiepolo. Great procession of the Trade Guilds 

and naval review at his election. 
1282 Venice excommunicated by Martin IV for failing in the defence 

of Charles of Anjou and the Pope after the Sicilian Vespers. 
1289 Doge Pietro Gradenigo. Long reign, and important period of 

the history of Venice. 
Marco Polo born in Venice 1254, died 1324. 

GENOA 

1261 Treaty of Nymphaeum between Genoa andtheEmperorMichaelVIII 
(Palaeologus) dates the growth of the power of Genoa in the Levant. 

MILAN 

1237 General Pagano della Torre defeated Frederick II and took 
the office of Podesta. 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 145 

1 24 1 The Torreani were rulers as Podesti and Signori. 

1262 The Visconti became Signori of Milan and made an end of the 

constitutional independence, but greatly extended the power of 

the city. 

SIENA 

Cathedral begun 1245 on tne s i te OI " a previous church. Pulpit by 
Niccolo Pisano, begun 1266. Palazzo Pubblico begun 1288 for the 
Podesta. 

ORVIETO 

Cathedral begun 1290; fine Italian Gothic. 

ASSISI 

Lower church of St. Francis begun 1228, finished 1253; first 
Gothic church in Italy. 

EASTERN (BYZANTINE) EMPIRE 

1200 Quarrels with the Crusaders. 

1204 Constantinople taken by the Venetians and Crusaders; the 
Byzantine Empire overturned. The Empire divided. Greek 
emperors ruled at Nicaea (Asia Minor), Latin emperors at Con- 
stantinople. 

Latin Emperors at Constantinople Greek Emperors at Nicaea 



1204 Baldwin I of Flanders 

1205 Henry. 
1 2 1 7 Peter. 

1 2 19 Robert. 

1228 Baldwin II. 



1204 Theodore I Lascaris. 

1222 John III Ducas. 

1254 Theodore II Ducas. 

1259 John IV Ducas. 

1 26 1 Michael VIII Palaeologus. 

Michael Palaeologus retook Constantinople and re-united the 
kingdom, founding the Palaeologus Dyn. Fearing opposition, he 
tried to obtain aid from the Pope by offering to unite the Greek and 
Latin churches. 
1282 Andronicus II. Weak ruler. His son Michael IX was joint 
emperor till 1320, when he died. 

GREECE 

The history of Frankish Greece begins when the Crusaders and 
Venetians overturned the Byzantine Empire in 1204. At the time most of 
Greece was under the Byzantine Empire; it was taken by the Latins and 
divided into small governments. 

Princes of Achaia 



1205 Guillaume de Champlitte. 

1209 Geoffroy I de Villehardouin. 

1 2 18 Geoffroy II de Villehardouin. 

1 246 Guillaume de Villehardouin. 



1278 Charles I of Anjou. 
1285 Charles II of Anjou. 
1289 Isabelle de Villehardouin; 
with Florent of Hainault. 



146 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvn 

Dukes of Athens 
1205 Othon de la Roche (Megas- 1263 John I. 
kyr). 1280 William. 

1225 Guy I (Megaskyr). 1287 Guy II. 

1260 Guy I. Became Duke. 

In 1204 The Parthenon was handed over to the Latin Church by the 
Franks. It had been converted into a Greek Christian church about the 
fifth century a.d., and then consecrated to the Mother of God, " Theotokos." 

Despots of Epiros 



1236 Michael II. 
1 27 1 Nikephoros. 
1296 Thomas. 



1204 Michael I Angelos. 
1 2 14 Theodore. 
1230 Manuel. 

Dukes of the Archipelago 
1207 Marco I Sanudo. 1262 Marco II. 

C. 1227 Angelo. 

Lords of Corfu 
Corfu was a Venetian colony from 1206 to 12 14 
1214-59 Despots of Epiros. 1267 Charles I of Anjou. 

1259-66 Manfred of Sicily. 1285 Charles II of Anjou. 

1266 Chenardo. 1294 Philip I of Taranto. 

Genoese Colonies 

Smyrna, 1261-1300. | Phocaea, 1275-1346. 

RUSSIA 

1 236-1 241 Mongols under Kublai Khan subdued all Russia except 

Novgorod. 
1260 Mongols took Novgorod. 

SELJUKIAN TURKS 

Dissensions and decay of Seljukian Turks. Pressure of the Mongol 
invasions deprived Islam greatly of aggressive power. 

EGYPT 

1 248. Crusade of Saint Louis IX of France. 

1252 Rise of Mamluks, Mohammedan mercenaries in Egypt; setup 
and destroyed sultans at their pleasure. 

1258 Mongols took Bagdad and ended the nominal Abbasid caliphate. 

1260 Sultan Kutez of Egypt defeated the Mongols. 

1260 Sultan Bibars, a Seljukian. Commercial treaties with Italy, 
Sicily, Spain, and France. A great ruler. 1270 St. Louis of France 
in Egypt. Bibars died 1277. Constant war with the Mongols. 

SPAIN 

Spain divided into five Kingdoms at this time, Castile, Aragon, 
Portugal, Navarre, and Granada. The last was the Mohammedan strong- 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 147 

hold. During the quarrels of the different Spanish kings the Mohammedans 

had gained power. 

1 212 Christian alliance and Mohammedan defeat; decline of Moham- 
medan power; kingdom of Granada its last stronghold. 

1230 Ferdinand III, called "the Saint." United the kingdoms of 
Castile and Leon, and won back Seville and Cordova. 

1252 Alfonso the Learned. A student of literature, science, and 
astronomy. 

1263 Revolt of Castilian nobles. 

1275 SanchoIVorV? 

1295 Ferdinand IV the Hermandad. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Great cathedral building period. 
French Gothic influence. Romanesque used for capitals of columns 
in churches and cloisters. 

1 22 1 Burgos Cathedral founded by Frederick III and Bishop 
Maurice on the site of a small Romanesque edifice. The Bishop had been 
in France and probably employed French builders. It was not finished 
till 300 years later. Apostles door and cloisters, French Gothic. 

1227 Toledo Cathedral begun, continuous building till 1493, and altera- 
tions till the end of the seventeenth century. It includes early French 
Gothic, late Gothic, and Renaissance and Baroque, and also shows some 
Moorish influence. 

1238 The great Mosque at Cordova converted into a Christian 
church. 

1250 Leon Cathedral begun. The foundation stone had been laid 1 199. 
Finished at the close of the fourteenth century. 

Tarragona Cathedral continued. A fine example of Romanesque 
transition. Its sculptures are examples of Spanish art from the early 
sarcophagus in the facade to the Baroque period of the seventeenth cen- 
tury. The Apostles door, 1278. The products of sculpture of the 
period almost all of French or Italian origin. Terra-cotta statuettes in 
the portal of St. Vincent at Avila. 

Moorish Architecture. 1240 The Alhambra begun at Granada. 
The building continued till the end of the fourteenth century. 

LITERATURE. Religious and didactic poetry rose and grew up. 

Gonzalo de Berceo, devotional poems. The reign of Alfonso X 
distinguished by literature. Chronicles, some romances, many moral tales, 
and law. 

FRANCE 

1223 Louis VIII the Lion. Took command in person against the 

Albigenses. Married Blanche of Castile, a daughter of King 

Alfonso VIII. 
1226 Louis IX the Saint. A child at his father's death. Blanche of 

Castile regent. Feudal coalition against her and anarchy for several 

years. She resigned the regency, 1235. 
1235 Louis IX. Began to govern personally. A man of fervent piety 



148 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvn 

and simplicity, but a strong man with a firm will; perhaps one of 
the best of the French kings. Defeated Henry III of England, who 
landed to vindicate his claims to Poitou. Treaty of Paris, 1259, 
and settlement with Henry III. Married Henry's sister. Attacked 
Egypt as a means of winning Palestine during the Crusade. Died 
in Tunis on another Crusade. Increased the power of France and 
enlarged her dominions. 

1271 Philippe III le Hardi. Rash and illiterate, master in name 
only. Three important provinces acquired by inheritance — Tou- 
louse, Champagne, and Navarre. Two futile wars in Spain with 
Castile and Aragon. 

1285 Philippe IV le Bel. Married Jeanne, heiress of Navarre. His 
sister Margaret married Edward I of England. Excommunicated 
by Pope Boniface VIII when he imprisoned Guy Dampierre, Count 
of Flanders. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. A brilliant period, climax of Gothic 
architecture and sculpture. Various schools of styles; ex. Amiens, Reims, 
Bourges, Chartres, Troyes, etc. Monuments of the kings at St. Denis, 
and other stone and bronze monuments. Numerous specimens of painted 
glass remain, and a few frescoes executed by Cistercian brothers. Great 
period of Minor Arts. 

Ivories. At the end of century ivory carvers used the style of the 
beautiful Gothic statues decorating the cathedrals — many statuettes of the 
Madonna and Christ, and triptychs with religious scenes. Ivory Croziers 
with complicated designs. Many literary and secular subjects resembling 
the miniatures of the period. 

LITERATURE. Included a good deal of satire. " Romance of Rey- 
nard the Fox." " Roman de la Rose " begun by Guillaume de 
Lorris, finished after his death by Jean de Meung in the next century. 
Early drama, religious mysteries, and miracle plays. Fabliaux and Lais of 
Marie of France and Joinville, 12 24-1 3 19. 



Rutebceuf. 

Thibault of Champagne. 



Adam de la Halle, c. 1 240-1 286. 
Jean de Meung. c. 12 50-1 3 20. 



NORWAY 

1202 Haakon Sverrison, son of Sverri, succeeded. 

1204 Gunthrum Sigurdson, his nephew, succeeded. 1205 Inge II. 

Party strife. 
1207 Haakon IV, a grandson of Sverri. 1240 The last of the claimants 

fell and the land was once more at peace. Iceland acquired, and 

Scotland unsuccessfully invaded. 
1263 Magnus VI, his son (the Legislator). Surrendered the Hebrides 

to Scotland by the Treaty of Perth, 1268. 
1280 Eric II, his son, the priest-hater. Married Margaret of Scotland, 

daughter of King Alexander III. Their daughter, the Maid of 

Norway, acknowledged heiress of the Scotch throne. She died on 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 149 

her way to Scotland, and Eric claimed it in her place, but Edward I 
of England compelled him to abandon the claim. War with the 
Hanseatic cities. His second wife, Isabella Bruce, sister of Robert 
Bruce, King of Scotland. 
1299 Haakon V (Longlegs), second son of Magnus the Legislator. 

ENGLAND 

1200 John recovered Anjou and Maine. Enmity with France. Arthur, 
son of John's brother Geoffrey, and of Constance, heiress of Brit- 
tany, murdered. 

1 208 England put under Interdict by Innocent III. 1 2 1 3 John became 
the Pope's vassal. 

1215 The Magna Charta. War with Barons, who invited Louis the 
Lion to assist them. 

1216 Henry III, nine years old. Authority in the hands of William, 
Earl Marshal; he expelled the French. Followed by Hubert de 
Burgh. Great Charter confirmed at Oxford in 1223, and again 
in 1237. 

1258 Revolt of Barons and people against Henry caused by his mis- 
government and favour to foreigners. Simon de Montfort, Earl 
of Leicester (son of Simon de Montfort of the Crusade against the 
Albigenses) organized and led the revolt. His wife was Eleanor, 
sister of King Henry, and Saint Louis, King of France, was called 
upon to arbitrate. He gave a verdict for the king, confirmed by the 
Pope, but civil war continued till Simon was killed at the battle of 
Evesham, 1265. During the civil war Parliament took the form 
of an assembly with two Houses, which it has since retained. 

1272 Edward I. At crusade when his father died. Order and justice 
established. Wales was subdued, and Llewellyn ap Gryffyth 
became vassal, and the king's son, Edward, became Prince of 
Wales. Scotland at war with England, and united to England for 
a short time. Alliance between Scotland and France against 
England. Jews expelled after severe persecutions. Edward's wife 
was Eleanor of Castile. 

1 22 1 Dominican and Franciscan begging friars came to England. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Early English Gothic architecture; 
ex. Salisbury (1220-1260) and Fountains Abbey. Merging into Decorated 
style towards end of century; ex. Exeter Cathedral (1279-1291). Wells 
finished in 1250, six hundred sculptured figures in relief on the fagade, 
great example of English mediaeval work. Angel choir, Lincoln. 

Sculpture as an independent art arose in England influenced by French 
Gothic, but developed on a line of its own. Examples: Tomb of King 
John at Worcester, 12 16, and many other royal monuments. Knights in the 
Temple Church, and some works in Westminster Abbey of the Purbeck 
marble school. 1272 Bronze monument to Henry III, and bronze monument 
of Edward I, both cast by William Torrell. Queen Eleanor's crosses. 

Henry III an enthusiastic patron of all the arts; weaving, embroidery, 



150 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvii 

metal work, stained glass, mural painting, and miniatures. He employed 
painters from Florence, mosaicists from Rome, goldsmiths from Germany. 
Miniatures in illuminated MSS. reached a high level between 1250 and 1300. 
(See Art Supplement — Miniatures^) Picture tapestry woven by monks in 
England. Feudal castles and fortresses with donjons and several 
stone towers were built. 

LITERATURE. French language superseded Latin for public 
documents and private letters, and an effort was made to make it the 
language of the people. 

Roger Bacon. 1214-1292. I Armin. 

Henry Bracton (law). ; Grostete. 1175-1253. 

Tristan saga in England. Robert Manning. 12 60 -1340. 

Chronicles of Matthew of Paris. " Owl and Nightingale." 

1195-1259. j " Romance of Havelok." 

Chronicles of Nicholas Trivet. j Alexander romances in England. 

Gervase of Tilbury, fi. 1212. [ Many other English romances. 

Layamon wrote a great work in English verse. A monument of 
language, fifty words of Norman in thirty thousand lines. 

EUROPE GENERALLY 

Thirteenth century a transitional and formative period. 
Rise of Universities during this century in Europe, the result of the 
revival of thought and learning which began with the Crusades. 



Oxford, c. 1200. Charter. 
Paris. 1200. Charter. 
Siena. 1203. 



Naples. 1224. 
Padua. 1228. 
Cambridge. 1231. 



Art of Needlework grew and flourished all over Europe during the 
Gothic art period. 

SCOTLAND 

1 2 14 Alexander II succeeded. Joined English Barons against John. 

1249 Alexander III. Factions during his minority. Norwegian in- 
vasion repulsed. 

1286 On his death no heir, and Edward I recognized as Lord Superior 
to settle the various claims. Robert Bruce and Baliol chief 
claimants. Edward decided in favour of Baliol. He was crowned 
at Scone, 1292. Quarrel with Edward, war ensued. Edward took 
away the Coronation stone from Scone. Wallace joined the 
Scottish cause and was chosen Scottish representative; defeated by 
the English at Falkirk, 1298. 

LITERATURE. Thomas of Ercildoun, or Thomas the Rhymer, flour- 
ished 1280. Michael Scot and Duns Scotus both wrote in Latin. Three 
Arthurian romances. 

IRELAND 

Lack of unity gave John, King of England, opportunity to rule. 12 10 
He received fealty from the people. 1 2 13 Surrendered Ireland to the Pope. 



chap, xxvnj THIRTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 1 5 1 

Internal family feuds continued during time of Henry III. The English 
and Irish races remained separate. English families occupied Eastern 
Ulster. 

WALES 

Court of Llewellyn crowded with Bardic singers. Great revival 
in Welsh Literature. 



INDIA (first Mohammedan period, end of Hindu period) 

Northern India. 

Mohammedan conquest practically completed by Mohammed 

Ghori, who ruled as king at Delhi. During the thirteenth and fourteenth 

centuries every stronghold in Rajputana captured and the Mohammedans 

established firmly in the rest of Northern India. 

1206 Ghori murdered. His empire divided into two parts. The western 
part passed to his son. In the eastern part Qutb-ut-din Ibak, a 
deputy of Ghori, assumed sovereignty and became the founder of 
the first Mohammedan Empire, the line known as the Turki 
Slaves, sultans and kings ruling at Delhi. Almost every succession 
of the thirty-four kings of Delhi (1206-1520) was contested, and the 
country thrown into confusion every time. Of the thirty-four only 
eleven stand out with distinctness. 

1 2 14 Shams-ud-din Iyaltimish, slave and son-in-law of Qutb-ud- 
din. War with the slaves. Killed in battle. Followed by several 
other of the Turki slaves and one woman ruler. Mongol hordes 
making raids from time to time. 

1246 Nasir-ud-din Mahmud Shah. Long reign. A confused 
struggle and time of disorder and bloodshed. Mongols ravaging 
the borders. 

1266 Ghiyas-ud-din Balban, slave and son-in-law of Shams-ud-din 
and great minister of Nasir-ud-din, succeeded. Strong severe ruler, a 
notable man among the kings of Delhi. Many exiled rulers and 
men of letters found refuge at his court at Delhi. Killed in the 
moment of victory over the Mongols in the Punjab. Succeeded by 
his grandson, who was soon assassinated. 

1292 Jalal-ud-din Khalji (Firoz Shah) elected, 70 years old. Mon- 
gol invasion of Lahore repelled. His nephew, Ala-ud-din. led 
an army into the Deccan, conquered it and brought back immense 
treasure. On his return he murdered Jalal-ud-din. 

1296 Ala-ud-din, or Mohammed I, took the throne and used his ill- 
gained power with vigour and effect. Expelled the Mongols from 
Sind; they soon afterwards made a fresh invasion and reached Delhi, 
where he overcame them. He made expeditions to conquer the 
Deccan and Southern India. 

ARCHITECTURE. 1235 Qutb-Minar, near Delhi, built by Altar- 



152 THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvn 

mish in memory of the Mussulman saint, Qutbuddar. A beautiful 
architectural monument. 

LITERATURE. 1240 Minhajuddin, historian. 

Southern India. 

Beginning of the century Yadavas and Hoysalas in power and 

struggling against each other. 

1 240 Singhava Yadava. Constantly at war. Encouraged astronomy. His 
grandson and grand-nephew were chief court astrologers under him. 

1247 Krishna II Yadava, Emperor. Kept the Hoysalas down. 

1260 Mahadeva Yadava succeeded. Warred against the Rattas, sub- 
jugated them, and effectually kept the Hoysalas down. The 
people of Warangal so feared him they placed a woman, Rud- 
ramma, on their throne, knowing she would be safe at his hands. 
Marco Polo visited India during her reign and noted her good 
administration, and that she was much beloved by her people. 
Hemadri, the well-known author, was Mahadeva's chief adviser. 
The Hoysalas, strong in the beginning of the century, were being 

crushed out by the Yadavas, and finally altogether subdued by the 

Mohammedans in 1294. The Mohammedans invaded Southern India 

and the Hindu period drew rapidly to a close. 

ARCHITECTURE. Black pagoda at Kanarak Orissa, dedicated to the 
sun-god Surya, built by Narasimba, a Hoysala king — fragments exist of 
its fine colossal war horses. Great Temple of Hoysalesvara at Halebid 
begun c. 1250, left unfinished at Mohammedan conquest. Covered with 
rich sculpture and wonderful variety of designs; and other great Hoysala 
temples. 

Thirteenth century. New language arose known as Urdu or Hindu- 
stani. Serving as a "lingua franca" for most of India — a combination of 
the vernacular and the Persian of the Mohammedan conquerors. 

CHINA (end of Sung, beginning of Mongol Dyn.) 

Struggle between the Sungs and Kins exhausted the Empire. A new 

and formidable power of the Mongols growing. 

1207 Genghis Khan. Led the Mongol army to invade China and 
conquered China after a long and desperate struggle. 

1260 Kublai Khan, Mongol Emperor. Took the Chinese title Chitsou 
and named the Dyn. Yuan. A wise and great ruler; dealt well with 
a society he knew only imperfectly. A Buddhist, but treated all 
religions impartially. His splendid court described by Marco 
Polo, the Venetian traveller. He tried to identify himself with the 
Chinese, but was never quite popular with them. Subdued the Korea. 

1266 Tried to subdue Japan. Failed. 

1280 Collected a large army to revenge his Japanese defeat, but was 
again defeated by them. Art and literature flourished under him. 
Pope Nicholas III sent five monks to his court. Nothing known 
of the result of the embassy. 



chap, xxvn] THIRTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 153 

1294 Kublai Khan died. His long reign marked the climax of the Mon- 
gol triumph in China. Chintsong, his grandson, succeeded. 
Invaded Burmah unsuccessfully. 

ART. Artists — Chao-Ming-fu, known in Japan as Cho-su-go. He 
was court painter to Kublai Khan. Yen Hui, chiefly painted Buddhist 
and Taoist figures, known in Japan as Genki. Chao-Tan-lin, tiger and 
cubs in British Museum. Chao Chung Mu. 

LITERATURE. The Mongol Dyn. added little of permanent value to 
the already vast masses of poetry, general literature, and classical exegeses, 
but drama and the novel came into existence. 

Ma-Tuan-lin, a large encyclopaedia. It took twenty years to compile. 
Europeans draw largely on its store of antiquarian research. 

Sung Tz'u, a judge. Compiled a book on medical jurisprudence. 
Still used by Chinese coroners in spite of its many absurdities. 

Mongol Tartars had already conquered China, subdued Persia, and 
threatened the whole of the Eastern world and Germany, but the death of 
Kublai Khan, the " Khan of all the Tartars," saved Europe. 

JAPAN (Hojo family in power) 

1 219 Last of the Yoritomos assassinated. His widow appointed a boy 
of two years old as Shogun in his place under the care of the Hojo 
family. Power of the Hojos rose to supremacy as regents of young 
Shoguns under equally young Emperors without any power. 
Children were elected as Shoguns and Emperors and set up and 
knocked down by the Hojos. Some of the Hojos were able states- 
men, improving industry and agriculture, and encouraging art, 
literature, and religion. 

1 281 Mongol invasion under Kublai Khan defeated by Tokimune on 
the island of Kyushu. 

ART. Glyptic, used mostly for temples. Its greatest period from 
beginning of thirteenth century to the end of the fifteenth, after which 
time the vigorous originality of religious sculpture ceased. 

1252 Ono Goroyemon modelled and cast the majestic Dai-Butsu of 
Kamakura, which expressed so perfectly the attributes of the Buddha in 
the "Armida," or boundless light form (Indian influence). He also 
expressed the Kwannon (goddess of Mercy) very ably. 

Some of the best known sculptors in wood and bronze. 



Kwankei. 

Kokei (teacher of Unkei). 

Kaikei. 

Unkei (son of Kaikei). 

Tokei (son of Unkei). 

Jokaku (pupil of Unkei). 

Kown (priest). 

Kanyen (son of Kown). 



Koben (demon lantern bearers). 

Kosho. 

Koyo. 

Koson. 

Koyu. 

Moryushiu 

and many other sculptors. 



i54 THIRTEENTHS FOURTEENTH CENTURIES [xxvii-vm 

1266 The Emperor Kameyama placed 33,000 images of the goddess 
Kwannon in a temple at Kioto; 1,000 were five feet high, 32,000 smaller 
figures mounted on the foreheads, hands, and halos of the larger figures. 
They were in a hall 389 feet long and 57 feet high. This temple replaced 
an earlier one destroyed by fire in 1249, which had been built in 1 132 by 
the Emperor Toba, and had contained 1,001 images. 

PAINTING. Nobuzane (1 177-1265), a great artist and also a poet. 
Nagataka. Keion, a good draughtsman. Tosa Tsunetaka, founder 
of the Tosa School of Painters. 

LITERATURE. Period not productive of important literary works. 

1 2 1 2 Hojoki, by Kamo Chomei, a record of his personal experiences. 
Some diaries and journals, the best known by a woman. A collection of 
Tanka (short poems) compiled 1235. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany.— Popes.— The Two Sicilies.— Italy. — Rome. — Flor- 
ence. — Venice. — Orvieto. — Siena. — Mantua. — Genoa. — Lucca. — Milan. — Eastern 
Empire (Palaeologi). — Ottoman Turks.— Egypt. —Greece. — Spain. — Portugal. — 
Norway. — Scandinavia. — Switzerland. — Holland. — France. — Burgundy. — England. 
Scotland . — Ireland. — India. — Tamerlane. — Siam . — China . — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 

Emperors and Kings of Germany and Italy 

Albert I of Hapsburg. Alliance with Philip IV of France against 

Boniface VIII in the end of the thirteenth century. 

1308 Henry VII of Luxemburg. Went to Italy in 1310 when the Guelf 
and Ghibelline strife was raging. Dante's " De Monarchia " 
expresses the hopes the Ghibellines built on his arrival. Failure of 
the last attempt of a German king to reduce Italy to obedience. 
Henry obtained Bohemia by marrying his son, John of Luxemburg, 
to the daughter of the last king, Wenzel II. John became King 
of Bohemia. 

1313 Disputed election on Henry's death. Lewis, Duke of Bavaria, 
and Frederick, Duke of Austria, son of Albert I of Hapsburg, 
were both crowned. Lewis finally victorious after seven years' war. 

1328 Lewis IV crowned emperor. Struggle with the papacy, which, 
though insignificant compared with former struggles, involved 
questions of vital importance, and was productive of literature of 
much significance. Lewis annulled the marriage of John of Bohemia 
with Margaret, heiress of Tyrol, and married her to his own son, 
Lewis of Brandenburg. 

1346 Lewis declared deposed by Clement VI, and Charles IV, a son 
of King John of Bohemia, elected. 



chap, xxviii J FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 155 

1355 Charles IV crowned Emperor. Good ruler in Bohemia, but 
lowered the Empire in Germany and Italy. 

1356 He granted the " Golden Bull," the charter of the Seven 
Electors, to elect the future emperors, three ecclesiastics and four 
seculars {see Appendix XXVII). This created an aristocratic federa- 
tion. Charles the strongest emperor of the fourteenth century. 

1378 Wenzel, of Luxemburg, King of Bohemia ( = Wenceslaus), suc- 
ceeded his father, Charles. An incapable ruler; lived in Bohemia 
and took little heed of Italy, and none of Germany. War in Ger- 
many among the towns. Many schisms in the Empire. German 
territories divided and split up. 

1394 Wenzel seized and imprisoned in a revolt. Released by his 
brother John of Gorlitz. Deposed 1400. 

GERMANY 

Sculpture. Nuremberg first among the plastic schools, statues and 
reliefs on St. Lawrence, St. Sebald, Frauenkirche, and the " Beautiful 
Fountain." Good work at Augsburg, Ulm, Cologne, Freiburg, Mainz, etc. 
Bamberg not so good as in the previous century. In the early part of the 
century monumental work retained the noble stamp of the earlier period. 
Some important bronze work, but inferior in significance to the earlier 
work. 

LITERATURE. The most interesting writers of this century were the 
Mystics, beginning with Eckhard, d. 1329, followed by Johannes Tauler, 
1300-1361, Heinrich Suso, 1300-1365. The Limburg and Alsace Chron- 
icles in plain, narrative prose in the native language. Gerhard Groot, 
1 340-1 384. 

POPES 

1300 Great Jubilee. Two million pilgrims in Rome. The papacy 
weakened in the struggle with the French king. 

1303 Benedict XI lived a few months at Perugia. 

1305 Clement V (French). Election procured by Philip IV. Crowned 
at Lyons, never went to Italy. A tool of French politics. Fixed 
his residence at Avignon in 1309. Nominated fourteen French 
cardinals. Dissolved the order of Knights Templars at instigation 
of Philip IV. 

1314 John XXII (French) resided at Avignon. At strife with Fran- 
ciscan order. Romans elected a pope, Nicholas V, but he submitted 
to John. 

1334 Benedict XII (French). A reaction in his favour owing to public 
disapproval of Emperor Lewis IV annulling the marriage of John 
of Bohemia with Margaret of the Tyrol, whom he then married to 
his own son. 

1342 Clement VI (French) lived at Avignon. 1343 Embassy from 
Rome headed by Petrarch and Rienzi. Favoured Charles IV. 

1347 Rienzi's conspiracy in Rome with the idea of restoring Rome to 



J 5 6 



FOURTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxviii 



its old supremacy. He took the title of Tribune. Summoned 
Lewis and Charles, the rivals for the Imperial Crown, to submit to 
the Roman tribunal. Abdicated after seven months' authority. Was 
exiled. Returned to Rome 1354, and was put to death then. 
Innocent VI (French). Opposed the " Golden Bull." Gave way. 
Gave more attention to Italy than his predecessors at Avignon. 
Urban V (French). Returned to Rome in 1367 with Charles IV, 
but went back to Avignon 1370. Died the same year. The 
papal authority repudiated in Rome, and an antipope, Clement VII, 
elected. Schism in the Church began. 

Gregory XI (French). Return of the papacy to Rome urged by 
Catherine of Siena. 
Two popes elected on death of Gregory, at Rome and Avignon. 

Rome Avignon 



1352 
1362 



1370 
1378 



I3 8 9 



Urban VI. 
At his death Boniface 
in Rome. 



IX 



Clement VII. 
1394 At his death Benedict XIII 
at Avignon. 



THE TWO SICILIES 

Still divided into the two kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, both kings 
calling themselves Kings of Sicily. 



Naples (or Citra Pharum) 

1309 Robert, grandson of Charles 
of Anjou. 

1343 Joanna I, his grand-daugh- 
ter, was married five times ; 
no children. Constant civil 
war for the crown ensued. 
She sold Avignon to the 
Pope Clement VI. 

1382 Joanna murdered by 
Charles of Durazzo. 

1387 Ladislaus, his son, suc- 
ceeded. Constant struggles 
for the crown and inter- 
ference of the Popes. 

Cavallini, the Roman painter, in 
Frescoes, Sta Maria Donna Regina. 



Sicily (or Ultra Pharum) 

1302 War between the two Sici- 
lies. 

1337 Peter II, son of Frederick 
of Aragon, succeeded. 
A grandson of Peter I of 
Aragon and Constance, 
the daughter of Man- 
fred. 
Sicily remained under their 
descendants (Louis, 
1342; Frederick III, 
1355; Mary, 1377), but 
never again rose to its 
former greatness. 

the service of the court of Naples. 



ITALY 

All Italian states (except Venice) more or less involved in the strife of 
Guelf and Ghibelline factions, and engaged in internal war, and against 
one another; but in the midst of all the strife art was flourishing. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Some Lombardic Architecture 
continued, and Gothic Architecture was merging into the Renais- 



chap, xxvm] FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 157 

sance. Painting and Sculpture rose rapidly. (For painters, sculptors, 
and architects, see Art Supplement.) Italian carving on narrow strips of 
bone, and the small triptychs developed into larger works; example, 
altar at Pa via. End of this century all Italy ravaged by the plague. 

ROME 

Strife of the Guelfs and the Ghibellines under Emperor Henry VII ; 
many monuments in Rome destroyed. Culture was not at a high level in 
Rome at the end of the fourteenth century, but in the midst of the 
turbulence of the times Art was active, and continued to grow and to 
spread over the territories of the Pope and the Commune. Deodato and 
Giovanni Cosmati working on sepulchral monuments, etc. Tuscan and 
French influence superseded the native Roman schools of artists to some 
degree. 

FLORENCE 

Party strife of the Neri (black Guelfs) and Bianchi (white Guelfs). 
A new aristocracy arose with many powerful families, i.e., the Strozzi, 
Rucellai, Peruzzi, Acciaiuoli, etc., etc. The constitution assumed a 
definite shape, with a Gonfaloniere and sixteen priors at the head of 
affairs, and twelve Buonuomini, or magistrates, etc. A tumultuous cen- 
tury, but art, literature, and science rose and developed greatly. (For literary 
men see list of Italian literature generally, p. 159.) 
1302 Dante was exiled. 
1304 Constant strife between the nobles and the people. Much of the 

city burnt. 
1 3 10 Henry VII threatened Florence to endeavour to procure peace. 

The Florentines were assisted against him by the King of Naples. 
1348 The Black Death. 
1389 Cosimo de' Medici born. "Pater Patriae," founder of the 

great family. (See Appendix XXVIII.) 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Some Gothic architecture, but 
merging into the Renaissance. 1314 'Palazzo Vecchio finished. 

1347 Or San Michele begun. 1345 Ponte Vecchio rebuilt. 1376-90 
Loggia dei Lanzi. 1387 Campanile finished. Duomo proceeding. 
(For painters, sculptors, and architects, see Art Supplement.) 

VENICE 

1343 Victory at Zara over the Hungarians. 

1348 The Black Death. Two-fifths of the people said to have perished 
i and fifty noble families to have become extinct. 

1350 Severe contest with Genoa began, lasting till 1381. 

1355 Defeated at Pola by Genoese, who advanced towards Venice. 

1380 Venetians, under the aged Doge Andrea Contarini, captured 
the Genoese fleet at Chioggia. 

1 38 1 Peace concluded. Genoa no longer a great maritime power. 
Venice mistress of the seas. 



158 FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvm 

1382 Antonio Venier, Doge. 

Petrarch settled in Venice on the Schiavoni in 1360. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Gothic style superseded Byzan- 
tine. Many Gothic palaces built on the Grand Canal. 1301 Hall of the 
Council in Doges' Palace. 1309 South Facade and sculptures of Doges' 
Palace. Campanile rebuilt (fell 14th July 1902). Venetian school of 
painting beginning. (See Art Supplement.} 

ORVIETO 

The Ghibelline Filippeschi family attempted to deliver the town into 
the hands of the Emperor Henry VII. After three days' severe faction 
fighting in 131 2, they were vanquished and driven out. The Monaldeschi 
family left in power. Quarrels between various branches of the family, 
"The Stag," "The Viper," and "The Dog," kept the town continually 
at war. 1389 It was ruled by papal legates. 

Architecture. 

1 3 10 Lorenzo Maitani became architect of the cathedral begun in 
1290. The Facade completed c. 1321. The sculptures were executed 
by followers of the school founded by Niccolo Pisano; exact date un- 
certain, but finished about the middle of the century. 

SIENA 

Constant war and incessant faction fighting, but trade flourished and a 

brilliant epoch in the history of the town till the great Pestilence began 

in 1348. 

1322 Lorenzo Maitani proposed to build a new Cathedral, defects* 
being found in the building of the previous century, which had 
recently been enlarged, and the new building was begun on plans 
of enormous dimensions. 

1355 The work abandoned after the desolation of the city by the Great 
Plague and the fall of the " Nine." Begun again in about twenty 
years on smaller plan, using the transept already built as the nave. 

1369 The great Pavement begun, greater part laid by 1396, finished in 
the early sixteenth century. Facade of Cathedral mainly con- 
structed in the latter part of this century, about fifty years later than 
Orvieto facade. 

1338 Mangia tower begun. Architects, two brothers from Perugia, 
Minuccia and Francesco di Rinaldo. Upper part designed by 
Lippo Memmi. 
Catherine of Siena, 1347-1380. St. Bernardino, 1380-1444. 

MANTUA. Louis Gonzaga master, with title of Imperial Vicar, 
1328. 

GENOA. First Doge, Simon Boccanera, appointed, 1339. Rise of 
Genoa as an independent power. 

LUCCA. Independent. 



chap, xxvm] FO URTEENTH CENTUR Y A.JD. 



r 59 



MILAN. The Visconti family in power till 1395. Giovanni Galeazzo 
created Duke by the Emperor. Cathedral founded 1387. 

LITERATURE. ITALIAN LITERATURE of all kinds growing 
rapidly. Some of the most celebrated writers. 



Dante 

Cino da Pistoia 

Fra Guittoni 

Dino Campagni (His 

tory of Florence) 
Fazio degli Uberti 
Petrarch 
Giovanni Villani 
Matteo Villani 
Filippo Villani 
Guglielmo Pastrengo 

(first biographical 

dictionary) 



B. 

1265 



fi. 1326 
1304 



D. 
1321 



1360 
1374 
1348 

1363 
1404 



Boccaccio 
Franco Sacchetti 
Andrea Dandolo 
Malespini 
Poggio 

Antonio Pucci 
Filippo de' Bardi 
Ser Giovanni Fioren- 

tino 
St. Catherine of Siena 
and Giovanni Col- 
ombini (ascetic 



B. D. 

*3*3 1375 
1335 r.1400 

*343 

1380 1459 



1370 1 writers). 



EASTERN EMPIRE (Palaeologi) 

1328 Andronicus III, son of Michael IX, dethroned his grandfather, 
Andronicus II. The Turks advancing. He married Anne of 
Savoy. 

1 341 John V succeeded. His mother, Anne of Savoy, regent. John 
Cantacuzenus, prime minister, disputed the regency, and assumed 
the crown as John VI, and there were two ruling emperors. War 
between them ensued. 

1354 John V sole emperor. Cantacuzenus abdicated, retired to a 
monastery and occupied himself in writing. John V married 
Helena, daughter of Cantacuzenus. Turks advancing. John V 
sought aid against them from Western Europe, and went to 
Urban V in Rome in 1369. 

1 391 Manuel II. Siege of Constantinople by the Turks in 1397. 



TURKS (Ottoman) 

1300 Seljukian Turkish Dyn. ended; ten different principalities arose, 

but soon merged into the Ottoman principality. 
1307 Osman founded the Ottoman power on the death of Aladdin III, 

he was an emir who had acquired independence. 
1325 Orchan, his son, succeeded. Under him, Turkish power made 

great advance. He was famous as a legislator and administrator as 

well as a conqueror. 
*359 Murad I. Conquered Andrianople, bringing his rule up to the 

northern boundary of the Greek Empire. 
1389 Bajazet I. Besieged Constantinople in 1397. Was called away 

to resist the great Tartar leader Tamerlane, or Timur. 



i6o 



FO UR TEE NTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxviii 



EGYPT (Mamluk rulers) 

1 34 1 Sultan Nasir died. His descendants occupied the throne for 
forty-one years. The mosque " Sultan Hasan " in Cairo built by 
one of them. Art flourished under Nasir, fine specimens of glass 
and metal, and much building in Cairo. The blue mosque. 

1382 Barkuk, originally a slave, took the throne and founded the 
Circassian Dyn. 



RULERS OF GREECE after the destruction of the Byzantine Empire 

in 1204 





Princes of Achaia 


1301 


Isabelle de Villehardouin 


1370 Philip II of Taranto. 




with Philip of Savoy. 


*374 Joanna I of Naples. 


1307 


Philip I of Taranto. 


1376 Otto of Brunswick. 


1313 


Matilda of Hainault with 


1377-81 Knights of St. John. 




Louis of Burgundy. 


1 38 1 Jacques de Baux. 


1318 


John of Gravina. 


1383 Mahiot de Coquerel (Vicar) 


1333 


Catherine of Valois with 


1386 Bordo de S. Superan (Vicar) 




Robert of Taranto. 


1396 Bordo de S. Superan (be- 


1346 


Robert of Taranto. 


came Prince). 


1364 


Marie de Bourbon. 






Dukes of Athens 


1309 


Walter of Brienne. 


1355 Frederick III of Sicily. 


1311 


Roger Deslaur, chief of the 


1377 Pedro IV of Aragon. 




Catalan Company. 


1387 John I of Aragon. 


1312 


Manfred. 


1388 Nerio Acciajuoli, Lord 


i3 J 7 


William. 


Athens. 


1338 


John of Randazzo. 


1394 He became Duke. 


1348 


Frederick of Randazzo. 


1 3 94- 1 40 2 Under Venice. 




Despots 


of Epiros 


1318 


Nicholas Orsini. 


1358 Simeon Urosh. 


i3 2 3 


John II Orsini. 


1367 Thomas Preliubovich. 


x 335"58 Nikephoros II. 


1385 Maria Angelina. 


1336- 


49 Byzantine Rule. 


1386 Esau Buondelmonte. 


1349- 


56 Serb Rule. 

Dukes of the 


Archipelago 


1303 


Guglielmo I. . 


1364 With Niccolo II Sanudc 


i3 2 3 


Niccolo I. 


" Spezzabanda." 


i34i 


Giovanni I. 


1371 Niccolo III dalle Carceri. 


1361 


Fiorenza. 


1383 Francesco I Crispo. 
1397 Giacomo I. 



chap, xxvm] FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 161 

Lords of Corfu 



I33 1 Catherine of Valois with 

Robert of Taranto. 
1346 Robert of Taranto. 
1364 Marie de Bourbon. 



1364 Philip II of Taranto. 
1373 Joanna I of Naples. 
1380 Jacques de Baux. 
1382 Charles III of Naples. 
1386-1797 under Venice. 

Venetian Colonies 

Argos, 1388-1463. Nauplia, 1388-1540. Athens, 1394-1402. Corfu, 
1386-1797. 

Genoese Colonies 

Smyrna, 1344-1402. Phocaea, till 1346 and 1358-1455. Chios, 1304-1329 
and 1346-1566. Samos, 1304-1329 and 1346-1475. Lesbos, 1355-1462. 

SPAIN 
1 31 2 Alfonso XI, two years old. Regency claimed by Don Pedro and 
Don John; fierce wars between them; no central authority. The 
Pope and Maria de Molina, widow of Sancho IV, mediated, and 
the rule was divided, Pedro taking south-eastern, and John north- 
western provinces. 
1319 Both killed in campaign against the Emir of Granada. Alfonso XI 
assumed the power; long feuds and struggles for authority followed. 
1339 Mohammedan invasion from Africa joined by Emir of Granada. 
1350 Alfonso died of black plague while fighting the Mohammedans at 
Gibraltar. Pedro succeeded, surnamed "the Cruel." Driven 
out by his half-brother, assisted by France. Made alliance with the 
Black Prince, who restored him. His two daughters married the 
brothers of the Black Prince, John of Gaunt, and Edmund Langley 
Duke of York. 
1369 Henry II killed Pedro and succeeded. 1379 His son John I 

succeeded. 
1390 Henry III, boy of eleven. Assumed the rule in 1393, and ruled 
with wisdom and success. Married Catherine of Lancaster. 
ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. A richer style came in 
with elaborate ornamentation of flowers and foliage, complicated tracery, 
and finely articulated profiles. The minuteness of the work indicated 
Moorish influence. Leon Cathedral finished 1303. Barcelona Cathe- 
dral begun, and the present Gothic church at Oviedo. Late Romanesque 
and transition additions made to Tarragona Cathedral. Sculpture 
more graceful than in the previous century; showed French or Italian 
influence. Numerous fine tombs. In the Mediterranean districts the 
influence of Italy was prevalent, and towards the end of the century showed 
a Pisan origin as well as distinct local features. The sarcophagus of 
St. Eulalia at Barcelona shows the Pisan influence. The carved screens of 
Toledo Cathedral, the most important work of the period, show some 
similarity to the western doors of Bourges (France). Romanesque capitals 
of columns still used for churches and cloisters, and Romanesque tomb 
sculpture. 

M 



162 FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxvm 

Barcelona the chief seat of silversmiths' work fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries. 

Moorish Architecture. The Alhambra finished, and Court of the 
Lions. 

LITERATURE of all kinds increasing — poetry, chronicles, biographies, 
tales, and translations from the Arabic, etc. 

Some of the most celebrated writers. 

Juan Manuel. 1 282-1349. Prose Carrion. Poet. 

writer. Roderigo Yanez. Rhymed chron- 

Juan Riez. 1300-13 51. Priest and icles. 

poet. French and Latin " Poems of War of 

Pedro Lopez de Ayala. Poet. Troy " translated into Spanish. 

PORTUGAL 
1385 Dom John, an illegitimate son of Pedro the Cruel of Spain, chosen 

King of Portugal and assisted by the English and John of Gaunt. 

He defeated the Castilian army and freed Portugal from the rule of 

Spain, and established the independence of the Portuguese nation. 

1387 He married Philippa of Lancaster, a daughter of John of 

Gaunt. 
ARCHITECTURE AND ART, hitherto parallel to Spanish art, 
though in a limited degree, now rose to a new and national style. The 
convent of Batala founded to commemorate the Portuguese independence, 
and the adjoining chapel, "Capella imperfectus," never finished, and in a 
mixed style, show some English influence. 

NORWAY 

1319 Haakon V (Longlegs) died. The line of Harold Fair-hair 
ended with him. War with Denmark, which had lasted twenty-eight 
years, carried on in a desultory way during his reign. 

1319 Magnus Smek, his grandson, became king. A Swede by birth, 
and Norway and Sweden united under one rule by him. A nom- 
inal rule only. During his minority his mother, Ingeborg, governed 
in Norway ; extravagant rule. 

1332 Magnus Smek reached his majority and assumed government, 
lived chiefly in Sweden. 

1350 Compelled to abdicate the crown of Norway in favour of his second 
son. Haakon VI, his eldest son, succeeded on his death as King 
of Sweden. 

1359 Haakon VI. Married Margaret, the daughter of Valdemar Atter- 
dag, King of Denmark. 

1380 Olaf V, son of Haakon VI and Margaret, succeeded to Norway 
and Denmark under Margaret as regent. She was an ambitious 
woman, and gained the rule of Sweden and became ruler of the 
whole Scandinavian race. 

1397 She summoned the representatives of the three kingdoms toameeting 
at Kalmar. 



chap, xxvm] FO URTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



163 



SCANDINAVIA 

1397 The three Scandinavian kingdoms of Denmark, Norway, and 
Sweden formed the Union of Kalmar, and a United Kingdom 
under Queen Margaret, daughter of Valdemar, King of Denmark, 
and wife of Haakon VI, King of Norway (union broken up in the 
sixteenth century). 

SWITZERLAND 

Swiss League of the Cantons began in 1291, and in the fourteenth cen- 
tury formed a league of eight states, viz., Uri, Schwyz, Unterwalden, Luzern, 
Zurich, Bern, Glarus, and Zug. 



HOLLAND (ruled by Counts of Holland) 

1304 William III (the Good), succeeded his father, John II. A great 
statesman, developed the country and entered into close relations with 
other countries of Europe. His second wife was Johanna of Valois, 
niece of the French king. His daughter, Margaret of Valois, 
married the Emperor Lewis IV in 1323; another daughter, Philippa 
of Hainault, married Edward III of England in 1328. 

1337 William IV, his son, succeeded. He died in 1345 without 
children. The succession question caused civil war. The country 
was claimed by his sisters, Margaret of Valois and Philippa of 
Hainault. Margaret was successful, but resigned in favour of her 
son William V in 1349. 

1349 William V. His mother Margaret re-assumed the Lordship in 
1350. Civil war ensued between the nobles and cities (the Hooks 
and Cods). Edward III assisted Margaret. 1354 Peace was 
concluded. 

1358 Albert of Batavia, brother of William, was called in to rule by 
the Hooks, William being insane. He restored order and peace 
until 1395, when he joined the Cods and another civil war broke 
out. 

LITERATURE. Dutch literature growing and developing. 



Augustijnken van Dordt. Allegorical 

and moral verses. 
Willem vanJHildegaersberch. 1350- 

1400. Poet. 



Melis Stoke (a monk). A history in 

i3°5- 
Jan van Boendale. 1 280-1365. 
Jan van Ruysbroec. 1 294-1381. 
Jan de Weert. D. 1362. 

FRANCE 

1305 Philip IV. Victorious in the struggle with the papacy. Obtained 
the election of Pope Clement V. Forced him to dissolve the order 
of Knights Templars with great cruelty and many were burnt. De- 
cline of feudal independency and privileges. His daughter Isabella 
married Edward II of England. 



1 64 FO UR TEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxvm 

1314 Louis X. 1316 Philip V (le Bon), Salic Law adopted. 1322 
Charles IV (le Bel). All sons of Philip IV. 

1328 Philip VI of Valois, nephew of Philip IV, succeeded. 

1337 Throne claimed by Edward III of England as a son of Isabella, 
daughter of Philip IV. The " Hundred Years' War " with England 
began. 

1346 French defeated at Crecy and at Calais. Truce. 1348 Beginning 
of the Black Plague. 

1350 John II (le Bon), son of Philip VI. War with England renewed, 
defeat at Poitiers. John taken prisoner and taken to England by 
the Black Prince, and lived at the Savoy Palace, Strand. Charles 
Dauphin took the government. Discontent and insurrection in 
France. 

1359 John released. Ceded nearly the whole of Northern and 
Western France, and two sons as hostages. Dauphin Charles and 
the States-General disagreeing, the war with England recommenced. 
Negotiations and treaty 1360. 

1364 Charles V, the Dauphin (le Sage). Successful ruler. Renewed 
war with England and recovered most of the cessions. War with 
Charles, King of Navarre, who had claimed Burgundy. 

1380 Charles VI (le Bien-aime). One of his daughters, Isabella, 
married Richard II of England. Another, Catherine, married 
Henry V of England. Another, Michella, married Philip the 
Good, Duke of Burgundy. Charles subject to fits of insanity, play- 
ing-cards invented to amuse him. France reduced to anarchy. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Gothic architecture and sculpture 
flourishing, and good glass windows. Additions made to Amiens, 
Reims, Bourges, Troyes, etc. Flamboyant Gothic began about 
the middle of the century. Example, St. Ouen, Rouen. Flemish sculp- 
tors collaborated with the French, and the school of Franco-Flemish 
Art arose in the north of France (Sculptors, see Art Supplement). Fine 
tomb effigies. Great development in Ivory sculptures. Gothic ivory 
statuettes of the Madonna and Christ and ivory tableaux cloans (or closed 
portable pictures) for private devotion and church use, also ivories with 
literary as well as religious subjects. Towards the end of the century 
Franco-Flemish influence appeared with some loss of the delicacy of 
the work. 

Simone Martini at Avignon, frescoes in the porch of the cathedral. 
Under him a few French painters formed a Franco- Sienese School. 
Good illuminated miniatures (see Art Supplement). Great periodof Minor 
Arts. 

LITERATURE. The fourteenth and fifteenth centuries a period of 
transition from the true mediaeval literature to the Renaissance. Roman 
de la Rose finished by Jean de Meung, who died 1320. Fabliaux. 
Reynard the Fox continued from end of twelfth to the middle of the 
fourteenth century. Lyric poetry elaborated in technique and in estab- 



chap, xxvm] FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 165 

lished forms, such as the Ballade, Chant royal, Lai, Virelai, and 
Rondeau. 

Literary Societies (Puys) formed and maintained the rules of art. 

Miracle and Morality plays and Mysteries. 



Guillaume de Machaut. 1284-1377. 
Guillaume Marchand. 1 295-1 380. 
Froissart. 1337-1410. 
Eustache Deschamps. 1 345-1405. 



Christine de Pisan. 1363-1420. 
Jean Gerson. 1363-1429. 
Gervaise (astrologer). 1386-1458. 
Alain Chartier. 1390-1458. 



Troubadours ceased at the end of the century. 

BURGUNDY 

1 36 1 Elder line of Dukes of Burgundy expired. The Duchy taken by 

John the Good, King of France. 
1363 Given by him to his youngest son, Philip the Bold, who married 

Margaret of Flanders. She brought him the countship of 

Flanders, Artois, Bethel, and Nevers. Philip became regent of France 

when Charles VI was insane. 

ART. Philip the Bold founded the Certosa at Champmol, near 
Dijon, 1383, for a mausoleum for himself and his descendants. Sculpture 
and bronze tombs of himself and his daughter by Jean de Marville, and 
four other statues by Klaus Sluter (for artists of Flemish-Burgundian 
school of sculpture, see Art Supplement). 

ENGLAND 

1300-1304 Edward I invaded and subdued Scotland. 

1307 Edward II. Struggle renewed with Scotland under Robert 
Bruce. Struggle with English barons. Piers Gaveston, the king's 
favourite, murdered 13 12. 

1 3 14 Bannockburn lost, France assisted Scotland. Hugh le De- 
spenser banished by the nobles. 

1327 Conspiracy against Edward led by his wife Isabella, daughter 
of King Philip IV of France, aided by Mortimer. Edward de- 
posed, charged with indolence, incapacity, loss of Scotland, and 
oppression of the Church. Barons murdered him, and crown 
passed to his son. 

1327 Edward III. Claimed the crown of France by right of his 
mother Isabella in 1337, and the Hundred Years' War with 
France began between him and Philip of Valois. English 
victories at Crecy 1346, and Poitiers 1356. Edward took 
the title of King of France borne by all English kings till 1800. 
C. 1348 Order of the Garter instituted. 

1 349 Black Plague appeared in England. 1 366 The Black Prince 
led an army into Spain to restore Pedro the Cruel. Black Prince 
died 1376. 

1377 Richard II, son of the Black Prince, under the tutelage of 
his three uncles, John of Gaunt Duke of Lancaster, and the 



1 66 FOUR TEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxviii 

Dukes of York and Gloucester. 1381 Peasants' revolt under 

Wat Tyler. 
C. 1380 Wycliffe published his Thesis on Transubstantiation. 

Rise of the Lollards in Oxford and their suppression. 
1388 Richard took the government into his own hands. Truce with 

France. Lancastrian revolt. Henry of Lancaster (son of 

John of Gaunt) the king's cousin, banished; returned in 1399. 

Richard married Isabella, daughter of Charles VI of France. 
1399 Henry IV of Lancaster deposed Richard, who died in 

captivity. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Gothic Decorative period. Tracery 
forming trefoils, circles, etc., for windows and ornament, and an immense 
east window. Examples in York, Hereford, Exeter, and Lichfield, etc. 
Many fine castles during the reigns of the three Edwards. Towards the 
end of the century developing into Perpendicular style. Many fine 
castles and houses with a mixture of the two styles in the time of 
Richard II. 

The Purbeck school of sculpture died out early in the century, super- 
seded by free-stone, wood, and bronze figures, and the alabasters began. 
Good period of Brasses, which were much used for monumental 
memorials. English Ivory carvers influenced by French gothic art. 
Subject of St. George and the Dragon came into popular use in art. 
Illuminated MSS. (see Miniatures Art Supplement). 

LITERATURE. The French language replaced by English in the 
schools, rival tendencies of Teutonic and Franco-Latin affinities. 



John Mandeville (great book of 
travels in French 1357-1371). 

"Sir Gawayne and Green Knight," 
c. 1360. 

John Lydgate. c. 1370-145 1. 

Occleve. 1 370-1454. 

John of Trevisa. fi. 1387. 



Cursor Mundi (poem). 1320. 
William Occam. 1 300-1 347. 
Laurence Minot. 1300-13 5 2. 
Higden, " Polychronicon." d. 1367. 
Gower. 1322-1408. 
Wycliffe. 1 3 24-1 384. 
Chaucer. 1328-1400. 
William Langland. 1 332-1400. 

Alliterative poetry revived 1355. Chester Plays, first important 
cycle of mystery plays known. Three editions of Piers Plowman in 
eighteen years. York Mystery Plays. "Wakefield or Townley Mys- 
tery Plays. Legend of Good Women. 

SCOTLAND 

1300 Invasion of Edward I of England. 1304 Kingdom surrendered 
after the long defence of Stirling. Wallace executed 1305. 

1306 Robert Bruce crowned at Scone as Robert I. War continued 
with Edward II after the death of Edward I. 

1314 Bannockburn. English defeated. Scotland independent under 
Robert I. 

1331 David II, a child of eight. Earl of Mar elected regent. Edward 



chap, xxviii] FOURTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 167 

Baliol, son of the deposed John Baliol, claimed the throne. Civil 

war and four invasions of the English followed. 1339 Baliol fled 

to England. Andrew Moray regent. 
1342 David II assumed government, died 1370 leaving no children. 
1370 Robert II, son of Margery (a daughter of Robert Bruce) and 

Walter the Steward. Beginning of the rule of the house of Stuart. 

Had been twice regent during the absence of David II. 
1390 Robert III. Truce with England for nine years. Internal war in 

Scotland. 

LITERATURE. The War of Independence gave a new impetus to 
nationality, and produced a corresponding effect on literature. Brus, 
written by John Barbour, a metrical account of the deeds of Bruce. 
Fordun compiled the first formal history of Scotland, "The Scoti- 
chronicon." Andrew Wyntoun, c. 1350-1420. 

IRELAND 

13 15 Edward Bruce landed and gained many victories, joined by the 
O'Neills. Bruce was killed and the Scots returned, and the invasion 
ended leaving Ireland in a state of internal disaffection and clan 
feuds. 

1367 Statute of Kilkenny (40 Edward III) with two different rules 
for English and Irish to keep the races quite separate. 

1372 Art Mac Murrough made himself master of Leinster. 

1394 Richard II landed with a large army. Left in nine months, leaving 
the government to Roger Mortimer, grandson of Lionel, Duke 
of Clarence, and Earl of Ulster in right of his mother. 
Art Mac Murrough rose again and ruled Leinster till his death.- 

1399 Thomas, son of Henry IV, was made Viceroy. Was inactive. 
LITERATURE. Leabhar Breac, "The Speckled Book," or the 

great book of " Dun Doighie," a collection of Irish and Latin pieces, prose 

and verse, compiled from ancient sources about the end of the century. 

INDIA (early Mohammedan period) 
Northern India 

Mohammed I (Ala-ud-din), freed from Mongols, resumed the project 
to conquer all India, and ended the Yadava Dyn. then in power in the 
Deccan. 

13 16 Mubarak, his worthless son, succeeded. The Empire broke down 
under him. 

1320 Khusin, his favourite, a low caste Hindu, murdered him and took 
the throne. 

1320 Tughlaq Shah defeated him and was called to the throne. 
Founded the Tughlaq Dyn. Was an excellent ruler. He also tried 
to conquer the South. 

1325 Tughlaq Mohammed II succeeded. Most accomplished man, 
but his judgment was unbalanced, and he was a weak and oppres- 
sive ruler. 



1 68 FO UR TEE NTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxviii 

135 i Firoz Shah, nephew of Tughlaq I. Recovered Bengal. A good 

ruler and great builder. 
1388 Six short and troubled reigns followed his death. 
1398 Timur ; known as Tamerlane, the great Oriental conqueror, 

invaded India, internal wars opening the way for him. He took 

Delhi. 1399 Left India. 

Southern India 

13 16 Emperors of Delhi ended the Yadava Dyn. 

1327 Mohammed Tughlaq II of Delhi attempted to annex Southern 
India. Two southern leaders, brothers, Harihara and Bukka, 
founded the city of Vijayanagar, and its kings were at war with 
the Mohammedans for two centuries. 

1366 Great war between the Hindus and the Mohammedans. 

LITERATURE. Among the most prominent literary men are: 

C. 1240 Minhajuddin, historian. 1300 Amir Khustru, poet. 

C. 1335 Ibn Batuta. The remarkable traveller and autobiographer 
at the court of Tughlaq. He was born at Tangiers. Visited Palestine, 
Persia, India, Ceylon, China, Constantinople, country of the Mongol 
Khans on the Volga, Bokhara, Central Africa, East coast of Africa, Spain, 
and Arabia. 

TAMERLANE 

Timur Bey, or Timur Lang (Timur-i-Leng), the lame Timur, 
vulgarized into Tamerlane, the celebrated Oriental conqueror, sovereign 
of the Berlas tribe, and ruling at Samarkand (the capital) in Central Asia, 
was born in 1336. Conquered Persia in 1387. Entered India in 
1398. Took Delhi, internal wars opening the way for him. Left India 
in 1399, carrying away immense quantity of spoil. Erected a mosque at 
Samarkand, employing the masons who built the mosque at Ferozabad, 
and Indian elephants to carry the stones from the quarries. War with the 
Turks. Projected war with China, but he died in 1405. He had carried 
victorious arms in one direction from the Irtish and the Volga to the 
Persian Gulf, and in the other from the Hellespont to the Ganges. 

SIAM 

1 35 1 Phaya Uthong. A great ruler, built the city of Ayathia. He and 
subsequent monarchs enriched the capital with temples, shrines, and 
pagodas, and filled them with great treasure. 

CHINA (end of Mongol [Yuan], beginning of Ming Dyn.) 

1368 Mongols overthrown by Choo Yuen Chang. End of Mongol (Yuan) 
Dyn. Hong-wou, the title assumed by Choo Chang as first 
emperor of the Ming Dyn. Patron of literature. Good ruler and 
virtuous. Constant war with the expelled Mongols. 



chap, xxvm] FOURTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



169 



1398 Kien Wenti, his grandson, succeeded, 
his uncles. 



Struggle for power with 



ART. Painting, Ming period 1 368-1644. Many important painters 
during this period, which is divided into early and late Ming art. The 
early (to end of fifteenth century) may be classed with the Sung and Yuan 
art. In the later the simplicity of the Sung and Yuan art was exchanged 
for elaboration and ornamentation. Genre painting beginning in Ming 
period. Ming Art at its best in the fifteenth century. 



Some of the most important artists of the Ming Period: 



The 



Chen Chii-Chung. Tigers. 

Chia Pin (late). 

Ch'iu Ying (fifteenth century). 
Court life. Makimono scrolls. 

Chao Chung Mu (fifteenth century). 

Chen Chung-fu. 

Chiang Ch'ien. 

Chao Meng-fu (fourteenth century). 

Chang Chi. 

Chu Chi-mien. 

Hsi Chin Ku-tsze. 

Lin Liang (fifteenth century). Jap. 
Rinrio, one of the greatest (mono- 
chrome). 

Lu Ki (fifteenth century). Birds, 
flowers, and cats. 

Good Pottery and strong blue glaze. 

LITERATURE. 1369 Hong-wou appointed Sung Lien and others to 
write a history of the Mongol Dyn. Fang Hsiao Ju, 1357-1402, wrote 
miscellanies. Many poets of Ming Dyn., but fewer great poets than in 
T'ang and Sung Dyns. Hsieh Chin, 1369-1415. 



Lan Han. 

Lui Tsun (fifteenth century). 

Hundred Children." 
Mu Ch'i. 
T'ang Yin. 1466-1525. Jap. To-in, 

or To-hakko. 
Wu Wei (fifteenth century). Ranks 

high. 
Wu Chi (end of period). 
Wang Wu. 
Wen Cheng- Ming. Jap. Bunchomei. 

Great landscape painter, painted 

" The Hundred Stags." 
Wang Jo-shui. Jap. Ojakusui. 
Yen Hui (fourteenth century). 



JAPAN (end of Kamakura Hojo period, beginning of fifteen 
Ashikaga Shoguns) 

13 18 Go Daigo, Emperor. Withstood the Hojos. He was exiled by 
Hojo Shogun, who put Go Kogen on the throne. Daigo escaped, 
and ended the Hojo power with the destruction of Kamakura by 
his generals, Nitta and Ashikaga Takauji. 

1336 Civil war between Nitta and Ashikaga Takauji, the latter vic- 
torious, and 

1338 Ashikaga Shoguns began with him. He rebuilt Kamakura and 
ruled there, Go Diago ruling in the south, and possessing the three 
sacred regalia, the mirror, ball, and sword. Rival emperors ruling 
in the north and south. 

J 359 Yoshinori. Second Ashikaga Shogun. Retired in favour of his 
grandson. 



1 70 FO URTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxviii 

1367 Yoshimitsu. Third Shogun. Built Golden Pavilion, Kyoto. Re- 
tired in favour of his son Yoshimotsu. 

1392 The Southern Emperor came to Kyoto, gave up the sacred 
regalia and the feud healed. 

1393 Yoshimotsu. Built the Buddhist monastery, Kenkahuji. 
Ashikaga Shoguns ruled, and emperors lived in retirement. The 

Ashikaga Shoguns were great builders. 

ART. Painting of the Ashikaga period. Beginning of the Renais- 
sance which reverted for its inspiration to China, and which was at its 
height at the close of the next century; the school was called the So -gen 
(Chinese, Sung Yuan). Josetsu (d. 1420), a Chinese painter who settled 
in Japan, took for his models the masterpieces of the close of the Sung 
and beginning of the Yuan periods. Shiubun, his follower, founded the 
Chinese Renaissance. Nen Kao, d. 1345. Gukei. Tesshiu. Cho 
Densu, called Meicho or Mincho, a priest, compared to Fra Angelico 
for his union of art and devotion; 1351-1427. Nearly all the painters of 
the Ashikaga period were monks and priests. The art was much influenced 
by Zen doctrines. 

Sculpture. From the fourteenth century a tendency to substitute 
elaboration for idealism, and a loss of the vigour of the thirteenth century. 
The sculptor's art used to adorn temple buildings more as a craft, executed 
with great delicacy. Many and various kinds of applied art. 

Fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Most eminent sculptors. 



Koshun descended from Jocko of 

the eleventh century. 
Koyei, son of Koshun. 
Kotan, son of Koyei. 
Kotitsu, son of Kotan. 



Koyei, son of Kotitsu. 
Koshin, son of Koyei. 
Korin, son of Koshin. 
And many others. 



LITERATURE. Not a productive century. A few quasi-historical 
works. Some essays and sketches and poems by Kenko, a Buddhist 
priest. Tanka poems continued. Three thousand Buddhist monas- 
teries on the slopes of the Heijeisan, north-east of Kyoto, and during 
this period the monks the chief maintainers of learning. 

The second half of the century, the No drama, originating in the Shinto 
pantomimic Kagura dance of the eighth century, was now supplemented 
with dialogue. At first purely religious, it now became a state ceremonial, 
and a necessary feature of the entertainments of the upper classes. Masks 
used for actors taking supernatural parts. 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 171 



CHAPTER XXIX 

FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — Rome.— The Two Sicilies. — Venice. — 
Florence. — Orvieto.— Siena. — Perugia. — Milan. — Italy (generally).— Eastern Em- 
pire (Palaeologi).— Ottoman Turks.— Egypt.— Rulers of Greece.— Greece under 
the Turks. — Russia. — Spain. — Portugal. — Netherlands. — Burgundy. — France. — 
England. —Scotland. —Ireland. —Wales. —The New World. —India. —Java. —The 
Sikhs. — China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 
Emperors and Kings of Germany and Italy 
1400 Rupert, King of the Romans, elected Emperor on deposition of 
Wenzel. Tried to restore German influence in Italy. 

1 410 Three candidates for the throne on his death. Wenzel, King of 
Bohemia, Sigismund, King of Hungary, and Jobst, of Moravia. 
Jobst died. 

141 1 Sigismund elected. Council of Constance summoned to restore 
unity. Hussite controversy. John Huss and Jerome of Prague 
burnt. 

14 1 9 Sigismund claimed the crown of Bohemia on death of Wenzel. 
War followed, lasting seventeen years. 

1423 Sigismund was crowned Emperor by Eugenius IV. Hussite wars 
continued. 1431 Council of Basel to consider (1) Restoration of 
peace; (2) Matters of doctrine; (3) Reforms of the Church. Sigis- 
mund became King of Bohemia in 1434; died in 1438. 

1438 Albert II of Hapsburg (Austria) elected Emperor. Hussite war 
continued. Campaign against Turks. His wife was Elizabeth, 
daughter of Sigismund. 

1439 Albert II died, leaving only two daughters. The Empire was 
without a head. A posthumous son of Albert was born, Ladislas 
Postumus, who died in 1457. 

1440 Frederick III, King of Hungary and Bohemia, and Archduke of 
Austria, elected Emperor. Frederick III was crowned at Rome 
1452. He was a neglectful and weak ruler. The Hapsburg rule in 
Hungary ended 1490, and in Bohemia ended in 1477 by the acces- 
sion of Wladislaus, son of Casimir IV of Poland. 

1477 Maximilian, the son of Frederick, married Mary, daughter of 
Charles the Bold of Burgundy. 

1482 Mary died, leaving two children, Philip and Margaret. 

i486 Maximilian crowned King of the Romans, King of the Germans, 
and Emperor-elect. Maximilian wished to marry Anne of Brittany, 
but Charles VIII of France took her as his wife though he was 
already affianced to Margaret, the infant daughter of Maximilian 



172 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A. D. 



[chap. XXIX 



and Mary. Maximilian claimed his daughter's dower, Artois and 
Franche Comte. War between Maximilian and Charles followed. 
1493 Maximilian I became Emperor on his father's death. 1494 
Married Bianca, daughter of Galeazzo of Milan. 1495 Diet of 
Worms. 1496 His son, Philip the Fair, married Joanna, daughter 
of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. 1495 Maximilian joined the 
League of Spain, Milan, Venice, and the Pope against France. 



GERMANY 

ART. Great activity and originality in sculpture, wood, stone, and 
bronze all over Germany towards the end of the fifteenth and beginning of 
sixteenth centuries. Wood-carving the favourite style of sculpture. Monu- 
mental work and fine altars and choir stalls at Ulm, Rothenburg, Heil- 
bronn, Creglingen, etc., etc. (For names of artists, see Art Supplement!) 

LITERATURE. During the latter part of the century a great revival 
of intellectual life in Germany as in the other leading European nations, 
due especially to the re-discovery of Greek literature and the invention of 
printing. Many universities established, but the rising questions of the 
Reformation deferred the full development of the literary renaissance in 
Germany until a later time. Maximilian interested himself in current 
literature. The school of the Humanists flourished. Carnival Plays 
or Shrove Tuesday Plays, which gave rise to the earliest comedy. A 
large number of Folk songs and popular poetry. 

Thomas a Kempis. 1380-1471. Murner. 1475-1536. 

John Wessel. 1420-1489. Luther. 1483-1546. 

Rothe, a monk. " Thuringen Chron- Ulrich Zwingli (Swiss). 1484-1531. 

icle," 1430. 
Reuchlin. 1455-1522. 
Sebastian Brandt. 1457-152 1. 
Johann Thurmeier. 1466- 1534. 
Erasmus. 1467-1526. 



Niklas von Wyl (translator), fi. 1487. 
Ulrich von Hutten. 1488-1523. 
Albrecht von Eyb (translator). 
John of Goch. 
Weit Weber (Swiss). 



POPES 
ROME 

1404 Innocent VII. Fled to 1417 
Viterbo. 

Rome sacked by the Ro- 
mans. . 141 7 

1406 Gregory XII. Abdicated, j 

1409 Alexander V. Elected at 
Council of Pisa. 

1410 John XVIII. Deposed by j 
Council of Constance. I 

1 41 9 Martin V, Colonna, elected. Rise of Colonna family. Schism 
ended. He restored order and peace in Rome and began to raise 



AVIGNON 
Benedict XIII (Spaniard). 
Deposed by Council of Con- 
stance. Died in prison, 1424. 
Clement VIII (Spaniard). 
Elected by Benedict and the 
Cardinals. 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. i 73 

the city from her decay. Inscription on his monument in the 
Lateran "Temporum meorum felicitas." New era of Renaissance 
began. Hussite war. 1422 Bernardino of Siena preached in 
Rome. Burnt the symbols of luxury and vanities on the Capitol. 
Council of Basel for the reform of the Church. 

1431 Eugenius IV. Favoured the Orsini. Decline of the Colonna 
family. Quarrelled with the Council of Basel. Fled to Florence, 
taking the Council with him. Lived there from 1434 to 1443. Re- 
volution in Rome. Vitelleschi, Tyrant of Rome. 1440 Antipope 
Felix V elected by the Council of Basel (last antipope). John VII, 
also called John VI (Palaeologus), the Greek Emperor, came to 
ask aid against the Turks. Union of Roman and Greek Churches 
proclaimed but remained a dead letter. 

1447 Nicholas V. Great scholar and Humanist. Founded the Vati- 
can library and commissioned Fra Angelico to paint in the 
Vatican. Restored and improved Rome but destroyed classical 
monuments to provide materials for building, a practice followed by 
all fifteenth-century builders. Submission of Felix V, the antipope. 

1455 Calixtus III. War with the Turks. Endeavoured to start a 
crusade. Neither England nor Germany would join. Claimed 
Naples on the death of Alfonso. The Borgias rose to power in 
Rome. 

1458 Pius II, Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini. Brilliant, scholarly, 
and accomplished. Had been crowned Poet-laureate by Fred- 
erick III. Endeavoured to regain the papal leadership of Europe, 
but the mediaeval conception of a Holy Roman Empire and United 
Christendom was past. Nationalities rising and wars of rival powers. 
He deprived Sigismund Malatesta of all his cities except Rimini. 
Tried to convert the Sultan to Christianity. Died at Ancona while 
starting a crusade. Rise of Humanists. 

1464 Paul II. A great collector. Frederick III in Rome. The secular 
character of the carnival festivities, and horse races of the Corso 
introduced by Paul II. 

1471 Sixtus IV, Rovere. A learned man and great builder. Restored 
and embellished Rome, and built the Sistine Chapel. Quarrels with 
Florence. War with the Turks. Papal nepotism. War in Rome 
between Colonhas and Orsinis. 

1484 Innocent VIII. Factions struggling in Rome and anarchy. 
Sultan Djem brought to Rome and remained there. Papal 
nepotism. 

1492 Alexander VI (Borgia). Vanozza was the mother of his four 
children, Juan, Caesar, Jope, and Lucrezia. His coronation cele- 
brated with great splendour and festivity. 
Towards the end of the century and onwards the Popes were great Italian 

princes, much mixed up with the wars of Italy, and possessing great 

temporal power. 



174 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



[chap. 



XXIX 



ROME 

Beginning of the Renaissance. All kinds of Art rising again, encour- 
aged by the Popes. 1450 Nicholas V conceived the idea of rebuilding 
St. Peter's, the old wall having begun to settle on the side of Nero's 
circus, but he did very little. Capitoline Museum began by Sixtus IV. 
1454 Printing Press in Rome. Plague in Rome 1449. 

THE TWO SICILIES 



1414 



1435 



1458 



Naples 

Joanna II, sister of Ladis- 
laus. Married twice, no chil- 
dren. Wars of Succession were 
caused by the marriages and 
adoptions of the two Joannas 
(I and II). 

Rene of Anjou and Al- 
fonso of Aragon fought 
for the kingdom. 



Sicily 
Under the descendants of Manfred. 

1402 Mary, daughter of Frede- 
rick III, died. She had mar- 
ried Martin of Castile. 

1402 Martin I. He married 
Bianca of Castile. 

1409 Martin II, father of Mar- 
tin I. 

1 4 1 o The island became an appan- 
age of Spain under John II, 



King of Castile. 

Alfonso V of Aragon expelled Rene. United the two Sicilies 
under one crown again. Reigned alone and undisturbed in Southern 
Italy. A prosperous period in the history of Southern Italy. 
He died. Bequeathed Naples to his natural son, Ferdinand I. 
John of Aragon, his brother, succeeded to Sicily and Aragon, 
and the two Sicilies again under divided rule. 



Naples 

Under Ferdinand's successors. 



Sicily 
Under John of Aragon and Navarre. 



VENICE 

Venice at her zenith and the focus of the commerce of Europe. 
Government stable and immune from internal revolutions, but her riches 
roused the enmity of her neighbours. Great extension of power in the 
mainland. She became a continental power as well as essentially maritime, 
and took part in every war in Italy. She conquered Padua and Verona in 
1405. Udine and Fruile in 1420. Brescia in 1426. Bergamo in 
1427. Crema in 1449. Rovigo in 1448. Cremona in 1449. Podestas 
set over each province. 

1454 Caterina Cornaro adopted by the Senate as its daughter. Be- 
trothed at fourteen to King Lusignan of Cyprus, married him four 
years after, and soon became a widow. 
1461-1477 War with the Turks, and consequent loss of some 
Eastern possessions. 1453 The capture of Constantinople by the 
Turks undermined the supremacy of Venice in the East. 



CHAP. 



xxix] 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



*75 



1488 or 1489 Cyprus annexed by Venice. Caterina Cornaro forced to 
resign ; she retained the title of Queen of Cyprus. Asolo was given 
to her, where she lived for twenty years holding a mimic court. 
1494 Venice joined the League against Charles VIII of France, who 
invaded Italy and was favourably received by Florence and Milan. 
Towards the end of the century commerce began to decline, the dis- 
covery of the new sea route to India by the Cape of Good Hope diverted 
the trade to Portugal. 



The Doges of the century 



FROM TO 



Michel Steno 


1400 


1413 


Tomaso Mocenigo 


1414 


1423 


Francesco Foscari 


1423 


1457 


Pasquale Malipiero 


1457 


1462 


Cristoforo Moro 


1462 


1471 


Nicolo Tron 


1471 


1473 



FROM 



TO 



1473 
1474 
I476 

1478 
1485 
i486 

Palace corn- 
Beginning of 



1474 
1476 
1478 

1485 
i486 
1501 



Nicolo Marcello 
Pietro Mocenigo 
Andrea Vendramin 
Giovanni Mocenigo 
Marco Barbarigo 
Agostino Barbarigo 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Gothic. Doges' 
pleted under Doge Foscari. Gothic additions to S. Marco. 
Renaissance building towards end of century. 1429 Marble top added 
to the Campanile. The clock tower, 1496. Venetian Glass good 
period, fifteenth to seventeenth century, elegant forms, very good light 
blue ornament. Leopardi raised Venetian Sculpture to its height. 
Great epoch of Painting (see Art Supplement). 

FLORENCE 

Florence the centre of the Renaissance and at the height of pros- 
perity, governed by the great Medici family (see Appendix XXVIII). 
1406 Pisa captured. 1411 Cortona. 142 1 Leghorn. 
1453 Influx of Greek exiles into Florence after conquest of Constantin- 
ople by Turks led to the famous revival of learning. 
1469 Lorenzo II Magnifico assumed the government; great states- 
man, poet, and patron of art and science. His brilliant court the 
centre of the culture of the Renaissance. 
1492 Lorenzo died, and was followed by his feeble son Piero. The 
authority of the family was rapidly undermined. 1494 The 
Medici were expelled, and the government entrusted to a 
Democratic Great Council. 1498 Savonarola burnt. 

ARCHITECTURE. Renaissance. Great palaces built. Duomo 
continued, three apses added. Cupola took fourteen years, from 1420 
to 1434; consecrated 1436. Lantern completed 1462. Facade completed 
1887. Some statues added to the Campanile in fifteenth century. 

ART. Glorious art period. (For painters and sculptors, see Art Supple- 
ment.) 

LITERATURE. A great number of the most brilliant literary men of 
the Renaissance were Florentines (see list of Italian writers, p. 177). 



176 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 



ORVIETO 

Ruled by Papal Legates till 1414, when it was conquered by King 
Ladislaus of Naples and ruled by the military Captain Sforza. 
1437 Again mastered by the Monaldeschi family, the "Viper" 

branch, and exhausted by warfare and pestilence. 
1460 Came under the absolute dominion of the Pope. Cathedral 

finished. 

SIENA 

1444 St. Bernardino of Siena died. 

1487 Pandolfo Petrucci usurped the supremacy, called II Magnifico. 
1493 Siena made alliance with Charles VIII of France when he entered 
Italy. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. A period of wealth, and art very 
flourishing. The castellated mansions adopted some Renaissance forms 
influenced by the architecture of the rival city Florence. The great palaces 
of the Piccolomini and Spannochi built. A school of good wood- 
carving nourished. Much of the great pavement of the Cathedral 
executed. 

PERUGIA 

In 1416 the Perugians called in the aid of Carlo Malastesta of 
Rimini against Braccio Fortebraccio. Braccio victorious at the battle 
of St. Egidio, and the government was offered to and accepted by him. 
A very great man; developed Perugia and was much beloved. 1423 
Contest of Braccio with Martin V ; the Pope victorious, and he entered 
Perugia as ruler and lord. Growth of the power of the nobles and rivalry 
amongst them. Perugia divided into three factions — the Pope, the nobles, 
and Niccolo Piccinino. The nobles split up into many parties; passionate 
blood feuds ensued, especially between the Baglioni and Oddi. At 
the same time Art developed and flourished. (For painters and sculptors 
see Art Supplement.') 



MILAN 

1447 End of the Visconti rule. 

1450 Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan. Friendly with Florence. 

Played a prominent part in Neapolitan politics. 
1466 Galeazzo Maria Sforza, his son, succeeded. A cruel ruler. 
1476 Gian Galeazzo, his son, succeeded, eight years old. His mother, 

Bona of Savoy, regent. Followed by his uncle, Ludovico il 

Moro. He called in the French under Charles VIII to aid him 

against Naples. 
1499 Louis XII, King of France, captured Milan and expelled the 

Sforzas. 



CHAP. XXIX] 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



177 



Milanese Art rose to the zenith of its reputation {see Art Supplement). 
Duomo progressing, but slowly owing to dissensions between the Italian 
architects and the German and French masters whom they called in to 
their aid. 

ITALY (GENERALLY) 

Period of the Great Renaissance in Italy. (For names of painters, 
sculptors, and architects see Art Supplement.) 

Comacine master masons who arose out of the old Collegium 
Romanum disappeared in the fifteenth century with the Lombardic 
style they had created ; rise of the Renaissance architecture followed. 

Italian Literature of the fifteenth century. The great poetical Re- 
naissance and the Humanists. Two events which gave a new impulse 
to literature and the revival of learning and culture in Italy were (1) the 
fall of Constantinople, which brought a great flight of learned Greeks into 
Italy, and (2) the invention of printing. 

The Platonic Academy was founded by Cosimo de' Medici, 1445, 
in Florence. 

Ciriaco di Ancona, traveller and archaeologist. The Vatican 
library founded by Nicholas V. Two complete versions of the Bible 
in the vernacular appeared in Venice, 147 1. 



Some Principal 

Leone Battista Alberti. 1404-72. 
Aeneas Silvia Piccolomini (Pope 

Pius II). 1405-64. 
Vespasiano da Bisticci. 1421-98. 
Giovanni Pontano. 1426-1503. 
Lucca Pulci. 1431-70. 
Luigi Pulci. 1432-87. 
Matteo Maria Boiardo. 1434-94. 
Lorenzo de' Medici. 1449-92. 
Savonarola. 1452-98. 
Angelo Ambrogini (known as Po- 

liziano). 1454-94. 



Italian Writers 

Jacopo Sannazaro. 145 8-1 5 20. 
Pietro Pomponazzi. 1462- 1525. 
Pico della Mirandola. 1463-94. 
Machiavelli. 1469-1527. 
Ariosto. 1474-1533. 
Giovanni Trissino. 1478-1549. 
Francesco Guicciardini. 1483-1540. 
Paolo Giovio. 1483-1552. 
Francesco Bello. fl. 1450. 
Girolamo Benevienti. 
Contarini. fl. 1473. 



EASTERN EMPIRE (Palaeologi) 

1425 John VII. Feeblest of all the Palaeologi rulers. Spent his reign 
in efforts to evade the dangers surrounding the Empire, and in 
negotiations for the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. 

1430 Thessolonica repudiated the rule of Constantinople; put itself 
under the protection of Venice, and was conquered by the Turks 
under Sultan Murad II, 1430. 

1448 Constantine XI. Unable to withstand the Turks though aided 
by Venice, Genoa, and Catalans. 

N 



178 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 

1453 Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mohammed II, 
who made a triumphal progress to Sta Sophia, and celebrated the 
worship of the Prophet there. End of Greek Eastern Empire. 
Proclaimed himself protector of the Greek Church, and installed a 
new Patriarch of the Church, who was subservient to him. Con- 
stantinople became more prosperous under Mohammed II than it 
had been under the rule of the Palaeologi. 

TURKS (Ottoman) 

1402 Bajazet was defeated by the Greeks at Angora, died in captivity, 
1403. Civil war and interregnum. His four sons carried on civil 
war. 

1413 Mohammed I. Re-united his father's dominions. Ottoman power 
quickly recovered. 

142 1 Murad II besieged Constantinople; was repulsed. War with 
Hungary. 

1 45 1 Mohammed II. Took Constantinople in 1453, restored the 
buildings there, and encouraged immigration of settlers from all 
parts of his dominions. Conquered Servia, Wallachia, and Bosnia. 
Treaty with Venice broken by Venice. War raged between them 
for sixteen years, 1463-79. Turkish force landed in Apulia, took 
Otranto; capture of Rome seemed possible, but Mohammed died, 
and his troops were recalled from Otranto. 

1481 Bajazet II, less able man. Turkish progress stayed for a genera- 
tion. 

EGYPT. Mamluk rulers (Circassian Dyn.) 

Falaag, son of Barkuk, followed by five brief reigns, 141 2-142 1. 

Bars Bey. Cyprus became a dependency in 1426. Commerce extended 
with India. He died 1438. Despotic ruler, but a literary and pious man. 
Followed by several Sultans. In 1468 Kait Bey ascended the throne. 
He built many beautiful mosques. Checked the power of the Ottoman 
Turks. In 1492 the plague devastated Egypt, 12,000 people died in 
Cairo in one day, among them Kait Bey's only wife and a daughter. 
Sorrow and Mamluk turbulence preyed on him; he abdicated 1496, and 
died the next day. 

RULERS OF GREECE 
Princes of Achaia 
1402 Maria Zaccaria. [ 1404-32 Centurione Zaccaria. 

Dukes of Athens 

ancesco. 

Made 



1402 


Antonio I. 


145 1 Francesco. 


'435 


Nerio II. 


1455-6 Franco. 1456-60 


1439 


Antonio II. 


Lord of Thebes. 


1441 


Nerio II restored. 





chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. i 79 



Dukes of the Archipelago 



141 8 Giovanni II. 

1433 Giacomo II. 

1447 Gian Giacomo. 

1453 Guglielmo II. 



1463 Francesco II. 
1463 Giacomo III. 
1480 Giovanni III. 
1494- 1 500 Venetian rule. 



Venetian Colonies 



Argos till 1463. Nauplia. Aegina after 145 1. Corfu. Zante after 1482. 
Cephalonia 1483-5. Cerigo. Athens till 1402. Patras 1408-13, and 
141 7- 19. Naxos after 1494. Andros 1437-40, etc. 

Genoese Colonies 

Phocaea, till 1455. Chios. Samos, till 1475. Lesbos, till 1462. Samo- 
thrace, 1433-1456, etc. 

GREECE UNDER THE TURKS 

1456 Athens captured by the Turks under Omar. The Parthenon 
became a Turkish mosque in 1460; a minaret was erected at the 
south-west corner. 

1460 The Peloponnesus conquered, with the exception of the Vene- 
tian possessions. 

1462 Modon and Koron attacked by Omar. 

1463 Argos betrayed to the Turks, recaptured by the Venetians. 
1470 Euboea taken from the Venetians by the Turks. 

1499-1501 Sultan Bajazet II drove the Venetians out of Lepanto, Modon, 
Koron, and Navarino, and besieged Nauplia and Monemvasia with- 
out success. 

RUSSIA 

1462 Ivan III (Vasilovitz). Ruler of all Russia; greatly influenced the 
consolidation of Russia. Married Sophia (Zoe), daughter of Thomas, 
brother of Constantine Palaeologus, Greek Emperor. Many Greeks 
settled in Moscow, bringing Byzantine culture and manuscripts. 
Ivan took the two-headed eagle as his cognizance. In 1477 ne 
freed Russia from Mongol supremacy. War with Poland. Conquest 
of Siberia. 

SPAIN 

1406 John II, an infant. His uncle, Ferdinand of Aragon, governed 
Castile during his minority. An able ruler and his government 
orderly. 

1410 The island of Sicily united to Aragon. 

141 7 John II assumed the government, but the actual rule wielded by 
Alvaro de Luna, his minister. Conspiracies and discontent. 



180 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 

1454 Henry IV (the Impotent). A feeble monarch, deposed. Crown 
offered to his brother Alfonso. When Alfonso died his partisans 
claimed the crown for Isabella, his and Henry's sister, pro- 
nouncing Henry's daughter illegitimate. 

1469 Isabella married Ferdinand, the Catholic, of Aragon, and the 
history of Spain as a united state began with the union of 
Aragon and Castile by their marriage and joint rule from 1474 to 
1504, and Spain rose rapidly to great power and prosperity. 

1476 Santa Hermandad (Holy Brotherhood) organized. A popular 
confederation of the whole kingdom for police and judicial 
purposes. 

1478 Torquemada, President of the Inquisition, authorized by 
Sixtus IV. Jews expelled. 

1492 Columbus discovered America; his voyage under the patronage 
of Isabella. The Pope, Alexander VI, gave a bull granting to 
Spain all discoveries west of an imaginary line a hundred leagues 
west of the Azores and Cape Verd Islands. This aroused Portuguese 
discontent, and it was modified. 

1492 Conquest of Granada, last Moorish stronghold, and Boabdil, 
last Moorish king, expelled. Dominion of Moors in Spain had lasted 
782 years. 

1495 Ferdinand joined the treaty formed in Venice against Charles VIII 
of France. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Final development of Gothic art 
under French and Flemish influence. Great impulse to art under 
Ferdinand and Isabella. It was also influenced by the political connection 
with Italy. Towards the end of the century a revolution in style, great 
mastery and technique in sculpture with more realistic treatment and genuine 
portraits, showing the vitality of the time when the nation was at its height. 
Many tombs in the great cathedrals; ex. portrait statue of the Archbishop 
Juan de Cevantes, died 1453. Great retablos at Seville, Tarragona, 
Toledo, etc. Carved stalls at Oviedo. Alabaster panels in Cathedral 
of Valencia, 1466, recalling the works of Ghiberti. 

Burgos Cathedral much altered in character from the thirteenth- 
century building. The upper part of the towers and spires added by a German, 
Juan de Colonia (Hans von Koln), in 1435-56. West front of Toledo 
Cathedral, 1418-79; it was repaired and altered 1777. 

Late Romanesque additions to Tarragona Cathedral. 

Seville Cathedral begun 1402, one of the largest and most elaborate, 
practically finished 1506. 

Barcelona the chief seat of silver work. {See Art Supplement for 
Painters.) 

LITERATURE much influenced by Italian literature, Boccaccio 
and Dante introducing a taste for allegory; and the study of Latin 
classics was brought forward by the influence of the Italian Renaissance. 
1474 The art of printing introduced. 



CHAP. XXIX] 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



181 





Spanish Writers 






B. 


D. 




B. D. 


Ayala 


i33 2 


1407 


Juan de Lucena 


A. 1453 


Enrique de Villena 




1434 


Alfonso de la Torre 


fl. 1461 


Santillana (Inigo 






Diego Enriquez del 




Mendoza) 


1398 


1458 


Casletto 


fl. 1470 


Alfonso Martinez de 






Rodrigo Cota de 




Toledo 


1398 


I466 


Maguaqua 


fl. 1490 


Anton de Montoro 


1404 ? 


I480 


Juan Alvarez Gato 


i433 ? 1496 


Diaz Gamez 






Hermando del Pulgar 


1436? 1492 


Juan de Mena 


1411 


i45 6 


Jorge Manrique 


1440 1478 


Perez de Guzman 




1460 


Christopher Columbus 


1440 1506 


Gomez Manrique 


1412 


1491 


Juan de Padilla 


1468? 1522? 


Pedro Guillen de Se- 






Juan del Encina 


1468 1534 


govia 


1413 


1474 


Pedro Manuel de 




Alfonso Fernandez 






Urrea 


i486? 1530 


de Palencia 


1423 


1492 


and others. 








PORTUGAL 





King John continued reigning. His long reign a peaceful develop- 
ment of the country, though his internal government was not entirely 
happy. He married Philippa of Lancaster, a daughter of John of Gaunt. 
1400 Henry IV of England made him a Knight of the Garter. 1415 
Henry V sent him assistance in his expedition to Ceuta. 

John granted great privileges and estates to the nobles, who became 
very powerful and almost independent with feudal rights. His three sons 
assisted in the government — Dom Edward, Dom Pedro, Dom Henry. 
Portuguese expeditions and discoveries. 

1433 Dom Edward succeeded; man of great qualities, but his reign short. 

1438 Affonso V, his son, a minor. Struggle for the regency between 

his mother, Donna Leonora, and his uncle, Dom Pedro; the latter 

became regent. 

1447 Affonso of Age. War with his uncle, Dom Pedro, who was 

killed 1449. Explorations and expeditions. 
1481 John II. Called the "perfect king." He came into contact with 
the nobles, and broke their power with the acquiescence of the 
people. Gold Coast trade increasing, i486 Bartolomeo Diaz 
rounded the Cape of Good Hope and reached Alagoa Bay. Other 
expeditions made, but John dismissed Columbus as a visionary. 
He outfitted Vasco da Gama, who reached India in 1498 by the 
new route round the Cape of Good Hope. Portuguese possessions 
increasing. John's only son, Affonso, who had married Isabella, 
daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, died. 
1495 Emmanuel the Fortunate succeeded. Married Isabella, widow 
of Affonso, hoping to gain the throne of Castile. She died, and he 
married Maria, her sister, 1500. Subsequently he married Eleanor, 
sister of Charles V. 



l82 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



[chap. XXIX 



LITERATURE. During the fifteenth century lyric poetry increased 
under the influence of the Spanish school and its leader, Juan de 
Mena. Chief followers of the style, Luis da Azevedo, Ayres Telles, 
Diogo Brandao. 

NETHERLANDS 
1404 William VI, son of Albert of Bavaria. 
141 7 He died. Civil war between Hooks and Cods. 
1436 Philip of Burgundy obtained all the Netherlands. 
1467 Charles the Bold of Burgundy, his son. 
1477 Mary of Burgundy, daughter of Charles the Bold. "Great 

privileges " granted. 1477 She married Maximilian, who afterwards 

became Emperor. 
1483 She died. Maximilian governed till he was elected Emperor in 

1494, when his son, Philip the Fair, took the government. 

Philip married Joanna of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and 

Isabella of Spain. 
Burgundian rule a time of material prosperity, luxury, show, and 
pageants. 

Architecture advanced, growth of Art and Letters. (For painters 
see Art Supplement.) 

LITERATURE. The famous Chambers of Rhetoric— literary 
guilds uniting all the literary movements of the fifteenth and sixteenth 
centuries. They existed from 1400, and the earliest prepared the 
" Mysteries " and " Morality plays." In process of time every town in the 
Low Countries possessed a Chamber of Rhetoric. 

Chambers of Rhetoric 



1398 

1400 
1401 
1427 
1428 
Numbers of others with fantastic names. 



The " Alpha and Omega " at 

Ypres. 
" The Violet," Antwerp. 
"The Book," Brussels. 
"The Berberry," Courtrai. 
"The Holy Ghost," Bruges. 



143° 

1433 
1437 
1496 



" Floweret Jesse," Middle- 
burg. 

" Oak Tree," Vlaadingen. 

" Marigold," Gouda. 

"Eglantine" at Amsterdam 
(the most celebrated). 



BURGUNDY 

1404 John the Fearless, eldest son of Philip the Bold. League of 
Princes against Burgundy, and outbreak of war, 141 1. Burgundy 
left supreme after Treaty of Auxerre. 

1419 Philip the Good, his son, married Isabella of Portugal. He 
obtained Hainault, Holland, Namur, Brabant, Limburg, Maine, 
Auxerre, Bar-sur-Seine, and complete and undivided sovereignty of 
the Netherlands. The Order of the Golden Fleece instituted 
by Philip in 1429 to raise a party on his side among the nobles. 
Burgundy at height of prosperity and full enjoyment of its chartered 
liberties. Great success of Dutch and Flemish fisheries, largely owing 
to Beukelszoom of Beervleet, in Zeeland. 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 183 

1467 Charles the Bold, son of Philip and Isabella; he also acquired 

more territory, and aimed at founding a great Gallo-Belgian kingdom. 

He married, as his second wife, Margaret, sister of Edward IV of 

England. War with France, 1470. At the height of his power, 1475. 

War with the Swiss, 1477. Died 1477. Burgundy seized by Louis XI 

of France. Charles's daughter Mary married Maximilian, and 

brought to him all the great estates except the Duchy of Burgundy, 

which was annexed to the French crown. 

Mausoleum of the Dukes of Burgundy at Champmol, near Dijon, 

continued. Flemish and Burgundian School of Sculpture end of 

fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. (See Art Supplement of Sculptors?) 

FRANCE 

141 5 English invasion under Henry V, who claimed the throne. 
Battle of Agincourt. English second invasion, 141 7; loss of Caen. 

1420 Treaty of Troyes with England. 

1422 Charles VII (le bien Servi). Reversion of the Crown had been 
settled on Henry VI of England; and the Duke of Bedford, who 
was regent for Henry, made war in France and was victorious. 

1429 Joan of Arc saved Orleans, and conducted Charles VII to be 
crowned at Reims. He did not support her efforts, and she was 
captured by the Burgundians in 1430 and burnt as a witch by them, 
the English, and the Church, 1431. 

1437 Charles VII entered Paris; trie English expelled. 

1453 English driven out of France, holding only Calais and the 
Channel Islands. End of the Hundred Years' War between 
France and England. The Dauphin rebelled and went to Philip 
the Good of Burgundy. Charles VII married Mary of Anjou, 
daughter of Louis II, titular King of Naples. 

146 1 Louis XI. Intimate relations with Philip of Burgundy (the Good) ; 
quarrelled with Philip's son, Charles the Bold of Burgundy; war 
between them involving England. 

1475 Edward IV of England invaded France, made terms and with- 
drew. Charles the Bold also made terms. 

1477 Louis XI. Seized Burgundian territory on the death of Charles the 
Bold. Maximilian (afterwards Emperor) had married Mary, daughter 
of Charles the Bold, and their daughter Margaret was promised in 
betrothal to the Dauphin Charles, and she was brought up to be a 
future Queen of France. 1481 Louis annexed Provence. 

1483 Charles VIII. Repudiated his betrothal to Margaret, daughter 
of Maximilian, and in 1 49 1 married Anne of Brittany, who had already 
been married by proxy to Maximilian then a widower. War ensued 
between Maximilian and Charles VIII. 

1494 Charles VIII claimed the crown of Naples, entered Italy and 
was received by Florence and Siena, and entered Rome. Was 
crowned King of Naples, Emperor of the East, and King of 
Jerusalem. Turned out of Italy, 1496. 



184 



FIFTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



[chap. XXIX 



1498 Louis XII, Duke of Orleans, cousin and brother-in-law of 
Charles VIII. He was called "Father of the People." Married 
(1) Jeanne, daughter of Louis XI; (2) Anne, widow of Charles VIII; 
(3) Mary, daughter of Henry VII of England. 

1499 Captured Milan and prepared to advance to Naples. 

ART. In the fifteenth century the same awakening of Art in France as 
in other countries. (For painters and sculptors see Art Supplement. ) 

ARCHITECTURE. Flamboyant Gothic still holding. Re- 
naissance introduced. The two styles blended, and Gothic declined. 
Ivories; love of realism gained ground, and carvers imitated painters. 
A rapidly increasing school of wood-carving. 

LITERATURE. Invention of Printing, much old literature spread 
and new produced. Time of transition from Mediaeval to Renaissance 
style. Culmination of sacred drama. Mysteries, Moralities, and Sotties. 





B. 


D. 




Froissart 


1337 


1410 


Philippe de Comines 


Christine de Pisan 


1363 


I42O 


Guillaume Coquillart 


Alain Chartier 


1390 


1458 


Guillaume Cre'tin 


Charles d'Orleans 


J 39i 


1465 


Georges Chastelain 


Antoine de la Salle 


1398 


T461 


Meschinot 


Martin Lefranc 


1410 


1461 


Molinet 


Martial d'Auvergne 


1420 


1508 


Arnoul Greban 


Henri Baude 


143° 


1490 


Jean Michel 


Francois Villon 


143 1 


1500 

ENG] 


and others 
LAND 



B. 



D. 



1445 1509 



1400 Rebellion of Owen Glendower in Wales. The French aided 
him, 1403-1404. 

1 40 1 Statute of Heretics to suppress the Lollards. Lollards protected by 
Sir John Oldcastle, Lord Cobham. 

1403 Revolt of the Percies. Hotspur leagued with Scots and 
Welsh. 

1413 Henry V (Lancaster). Lollard conspiracy; Lord Cobham burnt 
1418. Henry claimed the French crown; victoryof Agincourti4i5. 
Alliance with Philip the Good of Burgundy. In 1420 the Treaty 
of Troyes settled that Henry should succeed to the crown of 
France on death of Charles VI ; he had married Charles's daughter, 
Catherine. 

1422 Henry VI, nine months old. Protectorate conferred on his uncle 
John, Duke of Bedford, who was also appointed regent in 
France. During the absence of the latter in France the protectorate 
was conferred jointly on the King's uncle Humphry, Duke of 
Gloucester, and his great-uncle, Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) 
Henry Beaufort, a son of John of Gaunt. Incessant disputes 
between Beaufort and Gloucester for the chief power during 
Bedford's absence. War with France. 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 185 

1431 Joan of Arc burnt. 1453 All France lost except Calais and the 
Channel Islands. End of the " Hundred Years' War " with France. 

1449 Jack Cade's revolt. 145 1 Henry VI being childless, a quarrel 
regarding the succession arose between John Beaufort Duke 
of Somerset, and Richard Duke of York. Beaufort was a 
grandson of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, the third son of 
Edward III. Richard was not only a grandson of Edmund of 
Langley, Duke of York, the fourth son of Edward III, but also in 
the female line was lineally descended from Lionel, Duke of 
Clarence, who was Edward's second son. Beginning of the Wars 
of the Roses. Red rose, Lancaster; White rose, York. In 
1445 Henry VI had married Margaret, daughter of Rene, Duke of 
Anjou, and titular King of Sicily; their son Edward was born 1454. 

1454 Henry VI became imbecile. Richard, Duke of York, regent. 
Henry recovered and took the government, but York was recog- 
nized as his successor. Margaret raised an army to defend the 
interests of her young son Edward of Lancaster, and after several 
battles York was slain at Wakefield. 1461 York's son Edward 
defeated the Lancastrians at Towton, and was crowned King as 
Edward IV. Henry and Margaret fled to Scotland. 

146 1 Edward IV secretly married Elizabeth Woodville, widow of Sir 
John Grey, a Lancastrian. 1464 Margaret and her son Edward 
returned, and were defeated at Hexham. She made alliance in 
1470 with Warwick (the King maker) and with Clarence, who 
was married to Warwick's daughter Isabel Neville. Warwick's 
younger daughter Anne married Margaret's son Edward. 

1470 Edward IV fled to Burgundy, and Henry VI was restored. 

147 1 Edward IV returned. Warwick slain at Barnet. Edward of 
Lancaster (Henry and Margaret's son) slain at Tewkesbury, and 
Henry VI died in the Tower. Edward IV continued to reign till 
he died. 

1483 Edward V, his son, aged thirteen. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, 

his uncle, declared him and his brother illegitimate; murdered 

them both and took the crown. 
1483 Richard III. Married Anne Neville. In 1485 Henry Tudor, a 

descendant of John of Gaunt, and last of the Lancastrian family, 

returned to England, and Richard was killed at the Battle of 

Bosworth Field. Henry took the crown. 
1485 Henry VII (Tudor). The long bloodshed of civil war ended, 

and the warring lines united by his marriage with Elizabeth, sister 

of Edward V. 149 1 Invaded France. 
1496 Perkin Warbeck's revolt and defeat. 

Architecture and Art. Gothic Perpendicular style. Most of 
the cathedrals received Perpendicular additions. Ex. Winchester, 
Canterbury, etc., and Perpendicular towers were added to many; ex. 
Ripon, Wells, etc. Churches built; ex. St. George's Chapel, Windsor. 
Fine fan vaulting in many chapels and halls; stone ex. Gloucester 



1 86 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 

cloisters; wood ex. Westminster Hall. Rich decorative woodwork for 
screens and stalls, and carved stone screens with elaborate panelling, 
and niches with small figures. Alabaster school flourished. Numerous 
castles and mansions built. Henry VII's Chapel at Westminster practically 
marks the end of pure Gothic; classical forms subsequently adopted in 
architecture, sculpture, and decoration. (For painters see Art Supplement 
and Miniatures Supplement.") 

LITERATURE. Rise of learning. 1422 Caxton settled in 
Bruges and returned in 1441 with the Art of Printing. He set up his 
press, and in 1477 the first book was printed in England. Between 1477 
and 1500, 400 books were printed, many illustrated with wood engravings. 
Decline of illuminated manuscripts and miniatures. Great revival of letters. 
Greek studies and theology, and rise of "new learning" at Oxford. 
1493 Colet went to study in Florence, but on his return repudiated the 
allegorical and mystical theology of the Middle Ages, and was the forerunner 
of the Reformation. Miracle and Morality plays continued. 



John Lydgate. c. 1370-145 1. 

Occleve. 13 70- 1454. 

Reginald Pecock (Mysteries and 

Moralities). 1 390-1 460. 
Sir John Fortescue. 1395-1483. 
Thomas of Walsingham. d. 1440. 
Sir Thomas Malory (the Morte 

d'Arthur). 1433-1475. 
Littleton (lawyer), d. 1481. 
Chevy Chase and Early English 

Ballads. 



The Paston Letters. 142 2-1 509. 
Grocyn (a student at Florence). 

r. 1442-15 19. 
Selling (master of Linacre). 
Linacre. 1460-1524. 
Skelton. 1460-1529. 
William Warham. 
Colet. 1466-15 19. 
Stephen Hawes. 1483-15 12. 
Sir Thomas More. 1486-1535. 
Erasmus came to England, 1497. 



SCOTLAND 

1405 Prince James, son of Robert III, sent to France for safety to 
complete his education ; captured by an English ship and lodged in 
the Tower. 

1406 Robert III died. The captive prince recognized as heir and the 
Duke of Albany, Earl of Fife, the late King's brother, elected regent. 
141 9 Albany died; his son Murdoch Stuart succeeded as regent. 

1424 James I obtained freedom; was crowned at Scone. Married 
Joanna Beaufort, daughter of the Earl of Somerset and grand- 
daughter of John of Gaunt. Conflict between King and nobles, 
and many nobles executed. 

1427 Summoned the Lord of the Isles and fifty most notable chiefs 

to parliament, and executed many. James aimed to restore order 

and obtain the rule of an executive parliament, but his severe 

v measures led to his murder in 1437. His daughter Margaret 

married the Dauphin Louis. 

1437 James II, his son, a boy of eight, crowned at Holyrood. Earl 
of Douglas appointed Lieutenant of the Kingdom. Factions of 
nobles struggled to obtain power and to kidnap the King. His 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 187 

mother married Sir James Stuart, the Black Knight of Lorn, to 
ensure his assistance. 1448 James married Mary of Gueldres. 

1449 James II tried to crush the factions; much fighting ensued. He 
was an energetic ruler, restored royal authority and reduced the 
power of the nobles. 

1460 James III, his son. Joint regency of the Queen-Mother, Mary of 
Gueldres, Bishop Kennedy, and others. James married Margaret, 
a daughter of the King of Denmark. 1466 Renewed fighting 
and plotting of the nobles. James lacked energy and character to 
control them. His love of favourites and passion for art and music, 
inherited from his grandfather, proved his ruin. Henry VI of 
England and his Queen took refuge in Scotland after defeat at 
Towton. 

1482 English Army invaded Scotland, joined by the Duke of Albany, 
who intended to take the crown. James III killed at Sauchie Burn. 

1488 James IV crowned at Scone. Kept a splendid court. Took great 
interest in shipbuilding. The navy made great progress and trade. 
Great Scottish University, 141 3, a simple institution under Bishop 

Wardlaw of St. Andrews. University at Glasgow, 145 1. University 

at Aberdeen, 1494. Theology, philosophy, canon and civil law chiefly 

taught. 

IRELAND 
Internal quarrels between the Ormond and Talbot parties paralyzed 

the government. A time of misery for Ireland during the reign of 

Henry V, and during the Wars of the Roses in England confusion and 

anarchy in Ireland. 

1449 Richard, Duke of York, Viceroy. Ingratiated himself with both 
races. After Richard the Kildares rose in power. 

1480 Gerald, eighth Earl of Kildare (called also Geroit Mor), 
became Deputy and ruled for thirty-three years under five suc- 
cessive kings. 

1494 After much internal quarrelling and complaints against Kiidare, 
Sir Edward Poyning sent to take the government. His parlia- 
ment at Drogheda gave the control of Irish legislation to the 
English Council. The famous act (Poyning's law) still a prominent 
feature in the Irish political controversy. Kildare was soon restored 
as Deputy, and retained the position till his death in 15 13. 

WALES 
The country had long been tranquil, but, leagued with Hotspur under 
Owen Glendower, it attempted to shake off the English yoke assisted 
by France; was subdued by Henry IV. 

THE NEW WORLD 
1484 Columbus (Genoese), b. 1436, d. 1506, failing to get support 
from Venice to discover the Western route to India, turned to 
Spain and England for assistance. 



188 FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 

1492 Columbus started with assistance from Spain, 3rd August, sighted 
land (one of the Bahamas), 12th October, planted Spanish flag 
there and returned. 

1493 His second voyage; discovered many islands of the West Indies. 
1494 Jamaica. 

1497 John Cabot and his son Sebastian, in the pay of Henry VII, 
discovered Newfoundland. 

1498 Sebastian Cabot made a second voyage and explored the coast 
from Hudson's Bay to Florida. 

1498 Columbus reached the mainland of South America, and explored 
the coast of Venezuela. 

INDIA (early Mohammedan period) 
Northern India. 
1414 Tughlaq Dyn. ended. Khisr Khan, governor of Multan, took 

Delhi and founded the Sayyid Dyn. Three feeble descendants 

followed him. 
1 45 1 Bahlol-Lodi, Afghan governor of Lahore, son of a horse-dealer, 

took the throne and ended the Sayyid Dyn. A man of simple 

habits, pious, brave, and generous. 
1489 Sikandar, his son, prosperous reign of over twenty-eight years. 

Extended the kingdom considerably. 
Under the Turki (?) rule many smaller states rose and fell. Rajput 
chiefs (too numerous and complicated to tabulate) attempted independ- 
ence, and Mohammedan grandees intrigued. Islam spread, Hinduism 
declined except in the extreme South in the kingdom of Vijayanagar 
beyond the influence of the Mohammedan Empire. 

ART AND LEARNING greatly patronized by many of the Moham- 
medan rulers. 

ARCHITECTURE. Great period of Mohammedan architecture. 
Mosques became more ornamented, often encrusted with marble and 
adorned with rich and beautiful carving. 1401 Malwa assumed inde- 
pendence under its own rulers till 1 531, and important buildings were erected 
under the second king, Hoshang Shah, 1405-1434; the finest, the great 
Jami Masjid, one of the best specimens of its style in India, finished in 
1454 by Mohammed Shah I. The Atala mosque erected by Ibrahim 
Sharqi, King of Jaunpur, 1401-1440. 

Southern India (Hindu period). 

Continued wars between the Hindus and Mohammedans. 

1498 Vasco da Gama, under the patronage of the Portuguese King, 
John II, reached India by the Cape of Good Hope route, and 
landed on the coast of Malabar, near Calicut, and the Portuguese 
were soon established at Goa and other places. 

LITERATURE. Early in the century Ramanada, a prominent 
member of the Ramanuja sect in the North, was outcasted for suspected 
infringement of rules. Migrated to the Ganges valley and formed a new 
sect, teaching in the vernacular. Kabir, one of his twelve apostles, founded 



chap, xxix] FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 189 

the Kabir-Panthi sect, greatest of the Vaishuava teachers. Voluminous 
writer in Western Hindu, still read over all Hindustan. 

1450 Sahitya-darpana, or "Mirror of Art of Poetry," composed in 
Eastern Bengal in Sanskrit, latest of the treatises on poetics. 

JAVA 
ART extirpated on conversion to Islam; formerly very rich in sculpture 
of beautiful Indian types. 

SIKHS 

1469 A sect of Jats originated by Nanak, a celebrated Hindu re- 
former, and first Guru of the Sikhs. They gradually spread over the 
Punjab and Rajputana as far south as the Jumna. They became a 
mighty kingdom, finally absorbed into the British Empire. 

CHINA (Ming Dyn.) 

1403 Kien Wenti defeated in the struggle with his uncles; became a 
Buddhist priest. 

1403 Yonglo, Prince of Yen, one of the uncles, succeeded. Encouraged 
literature and art. During his reign Tamerlane contemplated the 
conquest of China. 

1425 Gintsong. 1426 Suentsong. Peaceful and prosperous reign. 

1435 Yngtsong, a child of eight. His grandmother regent, forced to 
share the rule with Wangchin, and his bad rule allowed the Mon- 
gols to advance and gain a victory. 

1465 Hientsong, his nephew. Instituted the Council of Eunuchs re- 
sembling our Star Chamber in effects. Prosperity and success of 
the country under the Mings at its height. 

1488 Hiaotsong. Peaceful reign ; cared for his people. 

ART. List of many Ming painters on page 169. Ming painters of 
the fifteenth century very fine, but the simplicity of the Sung style begin- 
ning to change into a more elaborate and ornate style. The beautiful 
"Earthly Paradise " belongs to the fifteenth century. 1406 Pekin Great 
Bell cast. 

LITERATURE. Emperor Yonglo caused the gigantic Encyclo- 
paedia to be compiled, 2169 scholars laboured at it for three years under 
five chief directors and twenty sub-directors; never printed, the cost of 
block-printing preventing. Two copies were made in a subsequent reign. 
An imperfect copy was in the Han -Lin College, Pekin, till the great 
fire of 1900 destroyed the college. Many illustrious scholars during this 
period. 

JAPAN (Ashikaga Shoguns) 
Shoguns 

1428 Yoshinori. Assassinated. Country in unrest; local wars. 
1441 Yoshikaga. Constantly embroiled in quarrels for power. 



i 9 o FIFTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxix 

1443 Yoshimasa. Built the Silver Palace, left it to monks. Retired 

and devoted himself to aesthetic pursuits. 
1473 Yoshihasa. Time of confusion. 
1490 Yoshitana. Constant struggles for power. Deposed. 
1493 Yoshizume. Continued struggles for power. 

Emperors reigned contemporaneously with these Shoguns, but did not 
rule. The Shoguns were the real governors. An age of castle building; 
development of art and trade. Splendid spectacles and shows, hawking 
and falconry. The priests and monasteries powerful, and the Zen sect 
greatly inspired the painting of the period. The Renaissance painting 
a return to the Chinese classical Sung style which nearly coincided with the 
date of the Italian Renaissance. 

Kano Masanobu, 1453-1490. Died young according to one tradition; 
founder of the Kano School. Motonobu, his son, married a daughter of 
Tosa Mitsunobu, 1434-1525, and combined the style of the Kano and 
Tosa Schools. 

Artists 



Sesshiu. 1420-1506. 

Shiugetsu (pupil of Sesshiu). 

Keishoki. 

Shiubun (a priest). 

Tosa Yukihide. 

Sotan (hawks and eagles). 



Kantei. 

Soga Jasoku (sages and landscapes). 
No- Ami (tigers). 
Gei-Ami. 

So-Ami (artist and landscape gar- 
dener). 



Shogun Yoshimasa set an example of luxury and elegance in almost 
every department of life. A fine period of Minor Arts rose showing great 
skill of execution and a wealth of design, and taking a high place in Japanese 
art. 

Inro (seal holders) of lacquer and fine inlay; they were used later on 
for medicine carriers. Netsuke or Toggles developed from the button 
used to fasten on the Inro (Ne = end or root, tsuke = to fasten). They 
afforded scope for a wealth of fine carving of all kinds of designs. 
Kinchaku, or money pouch, also fastened on by strings with a netsuke at 
the end. Fine Sword Furniture. Yojo, founder of the Goto family, the 
great school of Chisellers lasting for thirteen generations. 1449-90 New 
style of Lacquer, the Taka-Maki-Ye, or decoration in relief. The custom 
of covering religious statues with lacquer arose, and the shrines enclosing 
them were of great beauty and splendour. Names of individual lacquerers 
are recorded from second half of century, and Lacquerers began to rank 
with pictorial artists and sculptors. Also during the time of Yoshimasa four 
families possessed the best traditions and methods of the mimetic No 
Dance: (1) Kwanze; (2) Kamparu; (3) Hosho; (4) Kongo. 

The great Tea Ceremony was founded by a priest Shuki, and the 
painter So-Ami. The Shogun Yoshimasa built the first Tea chamber in 
his Silver Palace, and elaborated the utensils of the Tea Ceremony. 
Miami was made metal caster and sculptor to the Imperial household, 
and to the Ise shrine. Designs for the iron tea-urns were supplied by the 
painter Sesshiu. 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 191 



CHAPTER XXX 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 

Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — The Two Sicilies. — Venice. — Florence and 
Grand Dukes of Tuscany. — Milan. — Greece under the Turks. — Remaining rulers of 
Greece. — Spain. — Portugal. — The Netherlands. — Scandinavia. — Turkey (Ottoman 
Empire). — Egypt. — Russia. — France. — England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — America. 
— India. — China. — Japan. 

HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 

Emperors and Kings of Germany and Italy 

1508 Maximilian joined the League of Cambray, combining with 
Louis XII, Pope Julius II, and Ferdinand of Spain against Venice. 
They subsequently quarrelled among themselves, France and Spain 
disputing over the possession of Italy. 

15 12 Maximilian incorporated the vast Burgundian territories inherited 
by his wife with the German Empire. 

15 19 Maximilian I died. Three candidates for the Imperial throne: 
(1) Henry VIII of England; (2) Francis I of France; (3) 
Charles of Spain, Maximilian's grandson. 

1 5 19 Charles V of Spain elected. Ruled over Germany, the Nether- 
lands, Spain, Naples, and a large part of the New World, and held 
the title of Holy Roman Emperor. (The Holy Roman Empire still 
nominally the head of Europe.) Married Isabella, daughter of 
Emmanuel of Portugal. Ceded Austria, Syria, Carinthia, and 
Carniola to his brother Ferdinand. War with Francis I, who in- 
vaded Italy, determined to restore French preponderance. Treaty 
with Henry VIII of England in 1521. 

1521 Diet of Worms from 1521 to 1526, and Luther declared a heretic. 

1522 The Knights' War in Germany led by Ulrich von Hutten and 
Franz von Sickingen. 

1529 Vienna besieged by the Turks. National sentiment aroused and 
averted civil war, which was imminent. 

1530 Charles V crowned at Bologna. Diet of Augsburg. Melanchthon 
drew up the Confession of Augsburg. Teaching of Protestant 
doctrine forbidden. 

1535 Charles V took Milan. Francis I invaded Savoy and made an 
alliance with Turkey. 1536 Charles invaded Provence. Was forced 
to retreat. 1536 His triumphal entry into Rome. 1541 He invaded 
Champagne, declaiming against the French and Turkish alliance. 

1545 Council of Trent opened. 1546 Luther died. Civil war of 
religion broke out. 

1547 Charles V at the height of his power. 

1551 Maurice of Saxony made a treaty with Henry II of France, and 



192 SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxx 

declared for Protestantism. Swabian cities joined and the Imperial 
troops were defeated. 

1551 Second session of the Council of Trent. 

1552 Charles V fled from Innsbruck, where he was nearly captured by 
Maurice. 

1555 Peace of Augsburg. (1) Toleration to Lutherans; (2) Imperial 
chamber to be composed of both religions equally; (3) any prelate 
becoming a Lutheran to resign. 

1555 Charles resigned Italy and the Netherlands to his son Philip. 1 

1556 Charles V abdicated, and resigned Spain to Philip. 

1556 Ferdinand I, brother of Charles, succeeded as Emperor, King of 
Hungary and Bohemia, and Archduke of Austria. Pope Paul IV 
refused to acknowledge him. He married Anne of Bohemia and 
Hungary. Religious disputes growing. 

1559 War with Sigismund of Hungary, who demanded title of King 
of Hungary; Turks took part in it. 1560 Pope Pius IV acknow- 
ledged Ferdinand I as Emperor. 

1562 Third session of Council of Trent opened, closed 1563. It 
confirmed the doctrines of Roman Church, and has been described 
as the water-shed between Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. 

1562 Maximilian, son of Ferdinand, elected King of the Romans and 
crowned as Ferdinand's heir to Bohemia. 

1564 Death of Ferdinand, leaving to his son, Maximilian II, Austria, 
Bohemia, and Hungary; to his grandson, Ferdinand, the Tyrol 
and other provinces, and to his son Charles, Carinthia, Styria, and 
Carniola. 

1564 Maximilian II, son of Ferdinand, became Emperor. Inclined 
towards Lutherism. Married Mary, daughter of Charles V. 

1575 Maximilian's son Rudolf elected as King of the Romans. 
Divisions between Lutherans and Calvinists marked. 

1576 Rudolf II, son of Maximilian II, Emperor. Supported the Roman 
Church. Constant strife greatly caused by religious differences. 

1593 War with Turkey. Going on for eleven years. 

GERMANY 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. Renaissance architecture not used 
in Germany till the middle of the sixteenth century, when it was mingled 
with other preceding styles. Great Monument to Maximilian I at 
Innsbruck in the Hofkirche. Twenty-eight bronze statues worked between 
1508 and 1550, and twenty-four marble reliefs of historical scenes on the 
sarcophagus worked between 1560 and 1566. German enamelled glass 
first known. (For painters and sculptors see Art Supplement^) 

LITERATURE. Luther's translation of the Bible fixed the standard 
of language in Germany. He wrote it in High Dutch, which became the 
received tongue of Germany. Low Dutch looked on as a dialect. Literary 
productions flourished, the printing press becoming an important factor 
in national life. Poetry flourished in the form of Protestant Church 



! 



CHAP. XXX] 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



i93 



hymns and the Folk songs. " Ein' feste Burg," Luther's hymn based 
on the 46th Psalm, and many others written by him. 

Drama. Many playwrights and some satirical plays written, attacking 
the Church. English players visited Germany and exhibited their plays 
there. 



Thomas Murner. 1475-1536. 

Niklaus Manuel (Swiss). 1484-1536. 

Ulrich von Hutten. 1488-1523. 

Paul Rebhun. d. 1546. 

Hans Sachs. 1494- 15 76. 

Sixt Birck (plays). 1 500-1 554. 

Ringwalt. b. 1532. 

Johann Fischart. b. c. 1550. 

Jacob Ayrer. d. 1605. 

Duke Heinrich Julius. 1564-16 13. 

Georg Rodolf Weckherlin (first of 



the coming Renaissance poets). 
1584-1651. 

Martin Opitz (work largely based on 
French Renaissance scholars). 
iS97;i639. 

Jorg Wickram (pioneer novelist). 

Burkard Waldis (plays). 

Dr. Faust's Life (earliest book dates 
from 1587, author unknown, and 
first mention of Mephistopheles as 
his familiar spirit). 



POPES 

1503 Pius III (Piccolomini), nephew of Aeneas Sylvius, reigned only 
twenty-six days. The last tomb erected in old St. Peter's. 

1503 Julius II (Rovere). A great statesman and ruler, and one of the 
foremost characters of his time. Endeavoured to expel the French 
from Italy. Great patron of the arts and learning of the Renais- 
sance. Laid the foundations of the new St. Peter's. Commissioned 
Michael Angelo to paint the Sistine Chapel. 

1 513 Leo X (Medici), Cardinal at thirteen, Pope at thirty-eight. Golden 
age of the Renaissance in Rome. The pagan spirit of the Renais- 
sance was displayed in the festivities at his election, the statue of 
Venus with the inscription, "Mars fuit; est Pallas; Cypria semper 
ero." A lover of music, poetry, and all the arts. A combination of 
Pagan and Christian ideas current. Building fees for St. Peter's 
absorbed the German Indulgence money. The title of Defender 
of the Faith conferred on Henry VIII of England for his tract 
against Luther, 152 1. Diet of Worms, 1521-1526. 

1521 Adrian VI, the last German Pope. Despised art and luxury, and 
abhorred the statues of Greek gods. 

1523 Clement VII (Medici). Alliance with France to free Italy from 
the Emperor. Rome sacked by the Imperial army led by Constable 
Charles of Bourbon. Clement Imprisoned in St. Angelo for seven 
months. He made peace with Charles V, who restored to him 
Ravenna, Modena, Cervia, and Reggio. Clement crowned Charles V 
in 1530, and gave him the Kingdom of Naples. Henry VIII of 
England threw off his allegiance to the papacy. 

1534 Paul III (Farnese). A learned classical scholar, great art col- 
lector and builder. The beginning of modern Rome. His nephew 
Ottavio married Madame Margaret (Margaret of Parma), widow 
of Alessandro Medici, a natural daughter of Charles V. The 

o 



194 SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxx 

Duchy of Parma and Placentia created by the Pope for his family. 
Paul III sanctioned Ignatius Loyola's " Company of Jesus." In 1542 
the Bull was accorded to Caraffa and Alvarez of Toledo sanctioning 
introduction of the Inquisition, and a scaffold erected to burn 
Jews and heretics. Paul excommunicated Henry VIII. 

1545 Council of Trent opened. 

1549 Julius III. Friendly to Charles V and the Imperialists. Called 
the second session of The Council of Trent in 155 1. It ended 
in 1552. 

1555 Marcellus II only survived his election twenty-two days. 

1555 Paul IV (Caraffa). Confined the Jews in the Ghetto and ordered 
them to use the Yellow Hat. Supported Loyola and Xavier. 
Struggle with the Reformation. 

1559 Pius IV. Opened the third session of the Council of Trent, 
closed 1563. It confirmed the doctrines of the Roman Church, and 
has been called the water-shed between Roman Catholicism and 
Protestantism. 

1565 Pius V. Struggle with heretics. 1571 Instituted the Holy League 
of the Papacy, i.e., the Pope, Spain, and Venice against the Turks. 
Victory of Lepanto. Excommunicated Queen Elizabeth. 

1572 Gregory XIII (Buoncompagni). Learned man. Founded twenty- 
three colleges. Introduced a new Calendar. 

1585 Sixtus V (Peretti), rose from low origin to be a great man. 
Rebuilt much of Rome, using the materials of many ancient classical 
buildings. Exterminated brigands. 

1590 Urban VII, twelve days. Gregory XIV, ten months. 1591 
Innocent IX, sixty days. Each old and weakly. 

1 591 Clement VIII (Aldobrandini). A strong character. Well versed 
in legal matters. 1593 Absolution of Henry IV of France at 
St. Peter's. 1598 Wrested Ferrarafrom Don Cesare d'Este, heir of 
Alfonso II. 1599 Papal army on the Danube during the war with 
Turkey. 

Period of great intellectual activity in Rome, and golden age of the 
Renaissance of Art, Architecture, and Literature, but at the same 
time society was corrupt. 

ST. PETER'S 

1506 Foundation stone of the new building laid by Pope Julius II. The 

architect, Bramante, designed the building in the form of a Greek 

cross, with a hexastyle portico, and an immense cupola supported 

on four colossal piers. 
1 5 14 Bramante died. Leo X commissioned Giuliano da Sangallo, 

Gioconda da Verona, and Raphael to carry on the work. 

They altered the plan to a Latin cross. 
1520 Raphael died. Leo X commissioned Baldassare Peruzzi to 

carry on the work. He returned to Bramante's plan of the Greek 

cross, but the work made little progress. 






chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 195 

1546 Michael Angelo, a man of seventy-two years, employed by 
Paul III. He adopted the Greek cross, but began the dome on his 
own plan. He only lived to complete the drum of the dome. Died 
1564. Nothing more was done till 1588. 

1588 Giacomo della Porta, completed the dome in 1590, following 
Michael Angelo's plan. 

1605 Paul Maderna appointed architect, and again adopted the form 
of the Latin cross. He lengthened the nave, destroying for the 
purpose all the eastern section of the old basilica. He also 
designed the present facade. 

THE TWO SICILIES 

1504 The two Sicilies, Naples and the Island, united to the Spanish 
monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic. Governed by Vice- 
roys till 1707. 

1530 The Sicilian island of Malta became the refuge of the Knights 
of St. John driven from Rhodes by the Turks. 

VENICE 

1508 League of Cambray. A combination against Venice of the 
Emperor Maximilian, Louis XII of France, Pope Julius II, and 
Ferdinand of Spain, to despoil the rich Commonwealth. Subse- 
quent quarrels among them about the possession of Italy. 

151 1 Venice joined the Holy League with the Pope, Maximilian, and 
Henry VIII of England against France. League broken up, 15 13. 

1523 Joined Charles V and Pope Adrian VI in a defensive league 
against France. The power of Venice becoming impaired by con- 
tinuous struggles with the Turks. 

1540 Venice lost Nauplia, Chios, Paros, etc. 157 1 Lost Cyprus. 

157 1 Battle of Lepanto against the Turks; Venetians led by 
Sebastiano Venier, aged seventy-five (he became Doge in 1577), 
the Turks vanquished, but soon recovered from the blow. 

1574 Brilliant reception given to Henry III of France, who passed 
through on his way to assume the crown. 

1581 Quarrel with Pope Gregory XIII. The conflict called the 
" Interdetto " began. 
The wealth of Venice diminished by decrease of Eastern trade. 
Very flourishing period of the fine Arts and Science, and concourse 

of renowned men in Venice. (For the numerous painters see Art 

Supplement^) 

15 1 7 The gilded Angel added to the top of the Campanile. 

1 5 19 Upper portion of Procuratie Vecchie added by Bartolommeo Buon 
on the lower portion, which had been erected in 1496 by Pietro 
Lombardo. Andrea Palladio of Vicenza, 1518-1580, built many 
churches. 

1536 Libreria Vecchia (Renaissance) begun by Sansovino. 

1540 Loggietta by Sansovino, and its fine bronze gates and sculptures. 

1565 Bases of Flagstaffs in front of S. Marco cast by Leopardi. 



196 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



[chap. 



XXX 



1577 A disastrous fire destroyed works of Gentile da Fabriano and 

Bellini in the Doges' palace. 
1584 Procuratie Nuove added by Scamozzi shows the modernization 

of the Renaissance ideals. 
1588 The Rialto Bridge founded, c. 1590 The Bridge of Sighs 

built by the same architect, Antonio da Ponte. 



Doges 



Leonardo Loredano. 1501-21. 
Antonio Grimani. 1521-23. 
Andrea Gritti. 1523-39. 
Pietro Lando. 1539-45. 
Francesco Donato. 1545-53. 
Marc' Antonio Trevisano. 1553-54. 
Francesco Venier. 1554-56. 
Lorenzo Priuli. 1556-59. 



Girolamo Priuli. 1559-67. 
Pietro Loredano. 1567-70. 
Luigi Mocenigo. 1570-77. 
Sebastiano Venier (hero of Lepanto). 

1577-78. 
Nicolo da Ponte. 1578-85. 
Pasquale Cicogna. 1585-95. 
Maria Grimani. 1595-1606. 



FLORENCE AND GRAND DUKES OF TUSCANY 

1 51 2 The Medici family returned and regained authority. 

1527 The Medici family again expelled, and the Republic re-established 
with Niccolo Capponi as Gonfaloniere. 

1530 Emperor Charles V attacked and took Florence. Michael Angelo 
assisted in the defence. Charles made Alessandro Medici Duke of 
Florence. Alessandro married Madame Margaret, a natural daughter 
of Charles. 

1537 Alessandro assassinated by his cousin Lorenzo. Struggle for 
power. 

1569 Cosimo I obtained title of Grand Duke of Tuscany, includ- 
ing the basin of the Arno, Arezzo, Cortona, Montepulciano, Volterra, 
Pisa, Pescia, and Siena; and the Republic of Florence was ended 
by the rule of the Grand Dukes of Tuscany. 

1 57 1 Francesco became Grand Duke on the abdication of his father, 
Cosimo. He married (first) Joanna of Austria, a daughter of the 
Emperor Charles V; (secondly), Bianca Cappella. 

1587 Ferdinand I, Grand Duke, formerly a Cardinal. Very popular. 
Carried on war with the Turks. 

ART AND ARCHITECTURE. The older generation of artists passed 
away with the Republic, which ended with the accession of the Grand 
Duke Cosimo I, and when Michael Angelo died in 1564 the Renaissance 
of art was over. Cosimo I founded the Accademia and the collections 
of the Uffizi. (For artists see Art Supplement.} 

LITERATURE. Many of the literary men of the century were Floren- 
tines. (See list under "Italian Literature," pp. 197-198.) 

MILAN 

1500 Lodovico Sforza, captured by Louis XII of France. Milan 
remained for twelve years under the French crown. After the 



CHAP. 



xxx] 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



197 



1522 
1535 



battle of Ravenna Massimiliano Sforza was restored by the Emperor 

Maximilian, and he held Milan till 15 15, when Francis I of France 

reconquered it. Charles V disputed the possession with France and 

entered Milan. 

Charles V gave Milan to Francesco Sforza. 

Francesco died. House of Sforza ended, and Milan became a 

dependency of Spain till 17 14. 



ART. Monumental tomb of Gaston de Foix, Governor of Milan, 
who was killed in battle of Ravenna, 151 2; finest work of the sculptor 
Agostino Busti, 1480-1548; commissioned by Francis I of France in 
1515 when he was in possession of Milan. (For painters see Art 
Supplement.) 

ITALIAN LITERATURE. At the time of Leo X culture in Italy 
following the Humanists was pre-eminently secular. Philosophy, rhetoric, 
poetry (some satirical), archaeology, and natural science rose in place of 
the theological and legal culture of the Middle Ages. Many of the cele- 
brated literati were priests. Leo X established a Greek printing press in 
Rome. Novel writing, nearly identical with the art of narrative, greatly 
increased. Secular drama was replacing the sacred, and more than 
5,000 plays were written between 1500 and 1734, but very few enjoyed 
reputation out of Italy. The History of Comedy may be said to commence 
with Cardinal Bibbiena's " Calandra," performed in 1500. The plot 
was taken from the Menoechini of Plautus, the source of the " Comedy ot 
Errors." From c. 1550 a period of decadence began known as the 
" Secentismo," poor in matter, and affected in style. 

Francesco Berni. 1497-1535- 
Agnolo Firenzuola. 1497-1547. 
Giovanni della Casa. 1 500-1556. 
Guidiccioni. 1 500-1 541. 
Benvenuto Cellini. 1501-1571. 
Antonio Grazzini. 1 503-1583. 
Giovanni Cinthio (plots of "Othello " 
and " Measure for Measure "). 

i5 4-i573- 
Annibale Caro. 1507-1566. 
Angelo di Costanzo. 1507-1591. 
Bernardo Telesio. 1 509-1 585. 
Francesco Coppetta. 15 10-15 54. 
Giorgio Vasari. 151 2-1574. 
Straparola. 
Jacopo Nardi. 
Benedetto Varchi. 
Scipio Ammirato. 1531-1601. 
Celio Magno. 1536-1612. 
Gabriele Fiamma. 
Giovanni Guarini. 1537-1612. 



Sannazaro. 1458-1530. 

Antonio Tebaldeo. 1463-1537. 

Machiavelli. 1469-1527. 

Pietro Bembo. 1470-1547. 

Ariosto. 1474-1533. 

Michael Angelo. 147 5-1 5 64. 

Trissino. 1478-1549. 

Baldassare Castiglione. 1478-1529. 

Luigi da Porto of Vicenza (Romeo 

and Giulietta). d. 1529. 
Alessandro Piccolomini. 
Giovanni Battista Gelli. 
Bandello. 1480-1561. 
Paolo Giovio. 1483-1552. 
Francesco Guicciardini. 1483-1540. 
Julius Caesar Scaliger. 1 484-1 558. 
Molza. 1489-1544. 
Vittoria Colonna. 1490-1547. 
Paracelsus, c. 1 490-1 541. 
Teofilo Folengo. 1491-1544. 
Pietro Aretino. 1492-1556. 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



[chap. XXX 



J. C. Borromeo. 1 538-1 584. 
Pietro Paruta. 1 540-1 598. 
Torquato Tasso. 1 544-1 595. 
Giordano Bruno, c. 1550-1600. 



Fra Paolo Sarpi. 1552-1623. 
Galileo Galilei. 1 564-1 642. 
Alessandro Tassoni. 1 565-1638. 
Francesco Bracciolini. 1 566-1 645. 



GREECE UNDER THE TURKS 

1503 Peace between the Venetians and Turks. 
1540 Nauplia and Monemvasia captured by the Turks. 
1573 Peace concluded between the Venetians and Turks, leaving Greece 
in the Turkish possession. 

REMAINING RULERS OF GREECE 
Dukes of the Archipelago 



1500 Francesco III. 
1511-17 Venetian rule. 
15 1 7 Giovanni IV. 



1564-66 
1566-79 



Giacomo IV. 
Joseph Nasi. 



Venetian Colonies (decreasing) 

Nauplia till 1540. Aegina till 1537. Corfu till 1797. Cephalonia till 
1797. Zante till 1797. Cerigo till 1797. Naxos 1511-17. Andros 1507-14. 
Paros 1518-20, and 1531-36. 



Chios, till 1566. 



Genoese remaining Colony. 



SPAIN 



The Power of Spain grew rapidly. From the latter part of the fif- 
teenth century and during the greater part of the sixteenth Spain may be 
called the greatest power in Europe. 

1504 Isabella died. The unity of Spain again broken for a time. The suc- 
cession of Castile was left to her daughter Joanna, who was married 
to Philip, son of Emperor Maximilian I. Joanna was said to be 
mad and the regency was left to Ferdinand until the majority of 
Joanna's son, Charles, afterwards Emperor Charles V. 
15 16 Ferdinand died. Charles was proclaimed king in Castile, was 

refused in Aragon and civil war followed. 
1522 Charles V became king of all Spain as Charles I of Spain. 
1556 Philip II succeeded when Charles V resigned. He married (1) 
Mary of Portugal, daughter of King John. She died after the birth 
of their son Don Carlos. (2) Queen Mary of England. (3) Elizabeth, 
daughter of Henry II of France. (4) Anne of Austria, his niece. 
Spain was finally united and consolidated under him and became a 
great power in Europe. He never left Spain after 1559, making 
Madrid the capital. Built the Escurial. A despotic ruler, using 
the Inquisition for political purposes. Lost the Netherlands, and 
his influence in France was foiled by Henry IV of France. The 
Armada destroyed in 1588. Spain held a large part of the Western 
coast of America, all the islands in the Gulf of Mexico and Carib- 
bean Sea, Mexico, and Peru. 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 199 

1 580 Philip II seized Portugal on the death of King Henry I of Portugal. 

1598 Philip III, son of Philip II and Anne of Austria. Afvery religious 
man. He expelled the Moors in his effort to secure religious 
unity; a blow to the financial resources, industries, and agriculture 
of which they had been the backbone. Philip married Margaret of 
Austria. 
Zenith of PAINTING and LITERATURE during the latter part of 

the century (for painters see Art Supplement). 

ARCHITECTURE. Final development, partly under French and 

Flemish influence. Much wood-carving executed. Some of the finest 

Gothic buildings (as at Segovia and Salamanca) begun and finished after the 

Renaissance had made itself felt. A national style arose called by the 

Spaniards " Estelo florido," ex. rebuilding and decoration of Burgos 

Cathedral. 

1505 Great Retablo in Seville Cathedral. 

1521 Cloisters of cathedral at Santiago de Compostela Gothic, with 
Renaissance ornamental details. The Alcazar Palace, Seville, re- 
newed by the Italian architects of Charles V. 

1526 Renaissance choir added to Cordova Cathedral, and the harmonious 
proportions of the ancient mosque destroyed. 

1567 Batista da Toledo designed the Escurial. He died the same year. 
His designs adhered to in the main by his successors. 
LITERATURE. 1550-1650 The Golden or Classic age of Spanish 

literature and the language greatly enriched and improved, and Catalan 

literature fell to the rank of patois. Lyric poetry inspired by Italian writers. 

Romances and history. A very great number of writers of whom only a 

few are given. 



Juan Boscan. 1490?- 1540. 
Ignatius Loyola. 1491-1556. 
Garcilaso de la Vega. 1 503-1 536. 
Diego de Mendoza. 1503-1575. 
Francis Xavier (called the "Apostle 

of the Indies "). 1506-1552. 
Luis de Leon. 1528-1591. 
Juan de Mariana. 1536-1623. 



Antonio Perez. 1 540-161 1. 
Cervantes. 1547-16 16. 
Gongora. 1 561-162 7. 
Lope de Vega. 1562-1635. 
Guillen de Castro. 1569-1631. 
Tirso de Molina (barber of Seville). 

1576-1648. 
Mateo Aleman. fl. 1550. 



And many others. 

PORTUGAL 
Emmanuel the Fortunate. His reign was the heroic period of 

Portuguese history. Great men, knights, and explorers made his reign 

glorious, though he personally contributed little. 

1 52 1 John III. The country not so flourishing. Rise of the power of 
the king and nobles. Depopulation owing to emigration to new 
lands. Establishment of the Jesuits and the Inquisition. 

1557 Dom Sebastian, his grandson, succeeded; a minor. The 
regency was assumed by Queen Catherine his grandmother, and 
Cardinal Henry his great-uncle, but the power was exercised by the 
two brothers, Luis and Martin Goncalves Camara. 



2oo SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxx 

1560 Dom Sebastian declared of age. Imperious, fanatical, and war- 
like. 

1578 Cardinal Henry, great-uncle of Sebastian, proclaimed king on the 
death of Sebastian. Many intrigues concerning succession. Seven 
candidates. 

1580 Henry died. Several impostors arose calling themselves Dom 
Sebastian, whose death they denied, also many other claimants. 
Dom Antonio, Prior of Crato, grandson of King Emmanuel, 
asserted his claims with foreign assistance. The Duke of Alva 
entered Portugal with a Spanish army, conquered Dom Antonio 
and declared Philip II king; he was the son of Charles V and 
Isabella, a daughter of Emmanuel, King of Portugal, and the 
country became united to Spain. 

1580-1640 Time of Spanish domination over Portugal, called the 
sixty years captivity. A time of disaster for the country. 
During the sixteenth century Portugal had greater Eastern dominions 

than any other European power, but during the so-called " Sixty Years 

Captivity," 1 580-1 640, the English, Dutch, and French preyed on her 

colonial possessions. 

Some of the great explorers and governors of the foreign dominions of 

Portugal : 



Amerigo Vespucci (a Florentine, 

also served Spain). 
Vasco da Gama. 
Pedro Alvares Cabral. 
Duarte Pacheco. 
Francisco Almeida. 



Diogo Lopes. 
Magalhaens (Magellan). 
Albuquerque. 
Francisco Senao. 
Lopes Soares. 
Fernando Andrada. 



Camoens, 1 525-1 579, poet and traveller. 

LITERATURE. Golden Age of Portuguese literature. A very large 
number of writers of poetry and epics, prose romances and tales, history 
and religious works. Drama, the Miracle or Christmas plays of Gil Vin- 
cente, 1470-1536, attained a high degree of excellence. Allegories suc- 
ceeded the pastoral novel, but were suppressed by the Inquisition when 
they showed mystical tendencies. 

ARCHITECTURE. Belem monastery at Lisbon, Gothic, Moorish, and 
Italian Renaissance elements. 

THE NETHERLANDS 
1507 Margaret of Savoy, daughter of Maximilian, became Governess. 

A wise ruler. Helped to arrange the League of Cambray against 

Venice. 
1 5 10 Charles, grandson of Maximilian, son of Joanna of Spain and 

Philip the Fair, succeeded, but Margaret still Governess with a 

Privy Council. Charles became Emperor Charles V in 15 19. 
1 530 Mary, Queen of Hungary, a sister of Charles, appointed Governess 

by him on death of Margaret. 



CHAP. XXX] 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



1555 Philip II, King of Spain, succeeded when Charles V resigned. He 
alienated the Netherlands. 

1559 Appointed his half-sister, Margaret of Parma, Governess. She 
was the wife of Ottavio Farnese and widow of Alessandro Medici. 

1561-67 Her unpopular rule and scheme of ecclesiastical reform led to a 
revolt to free the Netherlands. William of Orange (the Silent) 
leader of the movement. 

1567 Alva sent from Spain. 1568 The Council of Blood, and reign 
of terror; a desperate struggle ensued. 1572 Siege of Haarlem. 
1573 Leyden. 1574 William named Governor. 

1579 Seven Northern Provinces joined the Union of Utrecht, which 
was the foundation of the Dutch Republic. Philip kept the 
Southern Catholic Provinces. 

1581 Declaration of Independence of Holland and Zealand under 
William of Orange. 

1584 William assassinated. Maurice, his son, succeeded as Captain 
General of the seven Northern Provinces. War with Spain con- 
tinued and confusion ensued. The sovereignty offered to 
Henry III of France; also to Elizabeth of England, Leicester 
named as Governor by her. 

1594 Archduke Ernest, brother of Emperor Rudolf II, was appointed 
Governor of the Southern Catholic Provinces. 

1596 Archduke-Cardinal Albert, brother of Ernest, was appointed 
Governor by his uncle Philip II on the death of Ernest. War con- 
tinued. 
Four great generals fighting against the Netherlands. Alva, Don John 

of Austria, half-brother of Philip, Alexander of Parma, his nephew, 

son of Margaret and Ottavio Farnese, and Marquis Spinola. 

LITERATURE. Modern Dutch literature practically begins with poetess 
Anna Bijns, b. 1494 — in her period Middle Dutch closes and Modern 
Dutch begins. 1553 Jean Baptista Houwaert and a group of rhe- 
toricians began a Renaissance literature. The Reformation gave rise to 
the composition of Psalms and Hymns, 1540 the Souter-Liede- 
kens published. Battle Songs and songs of triumph ; a famous collec- 
tion, the Geusen Lieden, by Boecxken, published in 1588. 

Chambers of Rhetoric continued to unite the literary movements of 
the times. " White Lavender " and " Fig Tree " Chambers were joined to 
the " Eglantine." Amsterdam the centre of letters. 



Dirck Coonhert. 1 522-1 590. 
Filips van Marnix. 1 538-1 598. 
Roemer Visscher. 1 545-1 620. 
Hendrick Spieghel. 1549-1612. 
Jakob Kats. 1 577-1 660. 
Pieter Hooft. 1581-1647. 



Anna(i584-i65i) and Tesselschade 
(1594-1649) daughters of Roemer 
Visscher. 

Brederoo. 1 585-1618. 

Joost van der Vondel. 1587-1679. 



ART. For painters see Art Supplement. 



202 SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxx 

SCANDINAVIA 

1523 Christian III, called "the Cruel," ruling over the three kingdoms 
of Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, was deposed and the 
union broken. Gustavus Vasa was chosen by Sweden as her 
king; Frederick I, Duke of Holstein, became King of Den- 
mark; and Norway remained with Denmark. 
Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601, astronomer, born in Sweden, but settled in 

Norway. 

TURKEY (Ottoman Empire) 
15 12 Selim I. War with the Persians. He added Syria to the Empire, 

took Egypt, and destroyed the power of the Mamluks. The 

Empire almost doubled during his reign. 
1520 Suleiman (the Magnificent). 1522 Took Rhodes from the 

Knights of St. John. Allied with France against the Holy Roman 

Empire. Conquered a large part of Hungary. Besieged Vienna. 

Constant war with Venice and Italy. Barbarossa or Khayn-ud-Din, 

his great general. After the death of Suleiman a succession of weak 

rulers followed till 1623. 
1566 Selim II, his unworthy son and successor. First conflict with 

Russia. Took Tunis from Spain. 1571 Took Cyprus from 

Venice. Maritime League of Christian Powers former! against the 

Turks, who lost Lepanto, 157 1. 
1574 Murad III. Weak ruler. Government in the hands of worthless 

favourites. The Empire began to decay. War with Austria and 

Persia. 
1595 Mohammed III. Weak ruler and bad man. War with the 

Empire. 

EGYPT 

1 501 Kausuh el-Ghuri elected to the throne. A man of ability. He 
built the Ghurya mosque in Cairo. In 15 13 the Portuguese seized 
Aden, and the important Indian trade of Egypt was ended. 

1 5 14 Selim I, Sultan of Turkey, took Egypt. Ghuri was killed. 
Turn an Bey was elected by the Mamluks. 

15 1 7 Turks returned. Selim entered Cairo. Tuman was hanged. Egypt 
sank to a province of the Turkish Empire. Constant struggle and 
jealousies between the Mamluks and the Turks. 

RUSSIA 

1505 Vassile Ivanovitch. Carried out his father's programme. 

1533 Ivan IV (the Terrible). Overthrew the Mongols. Extended his 

dominion to the Caspian Sea. Took Astrakan. Took the title of 

Czar, the Slavonic form of Caesar. War with Poland and Sweden. 

Trade with England established. Advance of civilization and power. 

A cruel and ambitious man. 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 203 

1584 Feodor. Feeble in mind and body. Government fell into the 
hands of his brother-in-law, Boris Godunuff, who was ambitious, 
capable, and cruel. 

1598 Boris Godunuff elected Czar on the death of Feodor. Curtailed 
the power of the nobles. 

FRANCE 

1508 Louis XII joined the League of Cambray against Venice. 

15 1 2 The French expelled from Italy. Chevalier Bayard in the wars 

in Italy. 
15 1 5 Francis I. Louis' cousin. War with Charles V. Married (1) 

Claude, daughter of Louis XII; (2) Eleanor, widow of Emmanuel 

of Portugal and sister of Charles V. 

1520 Meeting with Henry VIII of England at Field of the Cloth 
of Gold to concert measures against Charles V. 

1 52 1 Beginning of the long rivalry between France and the Hapsburgs. 

1522 War declared with England. France made alliance with Scot- 
land. 

1523 Constable Charles of Bourbon made a league with Charles V and 
Henry VIII. English, Spaniards, and Germans invaded France. 

1524 The French invaded Lombardy and were defeated. Bayard killed. 
1525 Treaty with England. 1526 Treaty with Charles V, uniting 
with him to suppress heresy. Siege of Rome by Constable Charles 
of Bourbon. He was killed. 1532 Brittany annexed to France. 

1536 Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII leagued against France. 

France assisted by a Scotch army. 
1547 Henry II (the Warlike). Constant war till 1559. Peace of Cateau- 

Cambresis. Reformation assumed a political character. Henry 

married Catherine, daughter of Lorenzo Medici. 

1559 Francis II. Government of France in the hands of his mother, 
Catherine de' Medici, and the Guises. Great Huguenot per- 
secutions. He married Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, the only 
daughter of James V of Scotland. 

1560 Charles IX, his brother. Catherine de' Medici, his mother, 
assumed authority. Huguenot wars. Charles married Elizabeth, 
daughter of Maximilian II. 

1572 Massacre of St. Bartholomew. 

1574 Henry III, another brother of Francis II. Catherine de' 
Medici governed while he pursued his pleasures. 1585 War of 
the three Henries — Henry III, Henry Duke of Guise, and Henry 
of Navarre (a Protestant). Huguenots were successful at first, but 
were defeated in 1586. Conde poisoned. 

1 589 Henry IV (Bourbon), King of Navarre, a Protestant. 1 593 Crown 
contested. 1594 Henry became Catholic and entered Paris. 1595 
Clement VIII recognized Henry IV as king. He married (1) 
Margaret of Valois, daughter of Henry II and Catherine de' Medici; 
(2) Marie de' Medici, daughter of Francis, Duke of Tuscany. 



204 



SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



[chap. XXX 



1598 Edict of Nantes. Huguenots obtained liberty of conscience. A 
French colony formed in Canada. 

ARCHITECTURE. Late Flamboyant and Renaissance. Tuilleries 
built by Catherine de' Medici. The foundation of the present Louvre 
laid in 1541 by Francis I, an indefatigable builder. He removed the old 
chateau which had been fitted up as a royal residence by Charles V of 
France in the fourteenth century. The original chateau was erected by 
Philip Augustus in the thirteenth century. Manufactures of silk, tapestry, 
and glass increased greatly. Palissy the Potter, 1510-1589. 

LITERATURE. The development of divers branches invigorated and 
enriched the language. The New Drama taking the place of the 
mediaeval. 



Pleiade Coterie of Seven Poets : 

(1) Ronsard. 1524-1585. 

(2) Belleau. 1528-1577. 

(3) Du Bellay. 1525-1560. 

(4) Baif. 1532-1589. 

(5) Pontus de Tyard. 1521-1605. 

(6) Jodelle (drama). 1533-1573. 

(7) Daurat. 1 507-1 588. 

Claude de Seyssel. 145 0-1520. 
Pierre Gringoire. 1478-1534. 
Rabelais. 1495-1552. 
Des Periers. 1 500-1 544. 
Monluc. 1 503-1 5 7 7. 
Calvin. 1 509-1 564. 
Amyot. 1513-1591- 
Ambrose Pau. 1517-1590. 
Jean Bodin. 1529-1596. 



Lamone. 1531-1591. 

Henri Estienne. 1 531-1598. 

Montaigne. 1533-1592. 

Du Hainan (History of France). 

1537-1610. 
Pierre Larivey (first comic writer of 

merit). 1540-16 n. 
Brantome. 1540-1614. 
Pierre Charron. 1541-1603. 
Du Bartas. 1 544-1 590. 
Robert Gamier (tragedy). 1545 

1601. 
DAubigne. 1550-1630. 
St. Francois de Sales. 1568-1622. 
L. de la Popeliniere. fl. 1580. 
Herberay des Essarts. 
Mathurin Regnier. 1573-1613. 
Marot. 1 597-1644. 



Estienne Pasquier. 1529-1615. 

The Ronsardists (a number of minor poets) and many others, including 

scientific writers and savants. 

Marguerite of Angoul&me. A great patron of the Huguenots and 

men of letters. 

ENGLAND 
Henry VIII. Constantly mixed up with foreign affairs. 151 1 
Joined the Holy League against Louis XII formed by Maxi- 
milian to drive the French out of Italy. 15 13 Invaded France. 
Candidate for the Imperial throne. 1520 Meeting with Francis I 
at the " Field of the Cloth of Gold " to concert measures against 
Charles V. 152 1 Treaty with Charles V. Henry received title of 
Defender of the Faith from Leo X for writing tract against Luther. 
1525 Allied with Francis I against Charles V. Reformation begin- 
ning in England. 

Trial for divorce from Katherine of Aragon (widow of Henry's 
brother Arthur). Fall of Wolsey. Rise of Thomas Cromwell. 



*$°9 



1S19 



!5 2 9 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 205 

1533 Married Anne Boleyn. Final rupture with the Pope, Clement VII. 
Papal authority abolished in England, Henry assuming title of 
Supreme Head of the Church of England. Dissolution of the 
monasteries. 

1536 Anne Boleyn beheaded. Hemarriedjane Seymourthenextday. 

1537 Jane Seymour died. 1540 He married Anne of Cleves and 
divorced her. 1541 Married Katherine Howard. 1542 Be- 
headed her. 1542 Defeated the Scots at Solway Firth and proposed 
to betroth his son Edward to the infant Mary Stuart, daughter 
of James V; the scheme refused by the Scots. 1543 Married 
Katherine Parr. 

Henry was a great lover of art and learning. His court and the 
kingdom full of learned men and artists. 

1547 Edward VI, nine years old. Son of Henry VIII and Jane 
Seymour. His uncle, Edward Seymour Lord Hertford, regent, called 
the Protector, afterwards became Duke of Somerset. War with 
Scotland continued. 1547 Battle of Pinkie won by the Protector. 
Advance of the Reformation. 

1549 First Prayer Book of Edward VI, and first Act of Uniformity. 

1553 Mary, daughter of Henry VIII and Katherine of Aragon. Lady 
Jane Grey executed. Marriage of Mary and Philip II of Spain. 
England re-united to Rome. 1555 Hooper, Ridley, and Latimer 
burnt. 1556 Cranmer burnt. 1557 War with France, loss of Calais. 

1558 Elizabeth, daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. 1559 
Acts of Uniformity and Supremacy passed. 1570 Pius V excom- 
municated Elizabeth. 157 1 Thirty-nine Articles established by 
Parliament. 1574 Roman Catholics attacked in England. 1577 
Drake began his voyage round the world. 1587 Mary, Queen of 
Scots, executed. 

1588 War with Spain; Spanish Armada destroyed. Elizabeth con- 
sidered the head of the Reformation, and assisted Reformers in 
France and Holland. 

1599 Essex sent to Ireland to repress the Tyrone insurrection. He 
failed. 

ARCHITECTURE AND ART. Perpendicular Tudor Period. 
An incoherent style. During the reign of Flenry VIII mostly domestic 
buildings; ex. Hampton Court. Hatfield House, Italians and English 
employed. Half-timber houses ; ex. Moreton Old Hall, Lyemore, dating 
from Henry VII. Ecclesiastical building in abeyance after the sequestration 
of the monasteries in 1534-9. Elizabethan style, mostly domestic build- 
ings; a mixture of Gothic, Italian, and Flemish. A few ecclesiastic 
buildings. 

Torregiano, a Florentine sculptor, invited to execute the tomb of 
Henry VII at Westminster. Begun 1509, finished 1517. He was commis- 
sioned for other works of sculpture in Westminster Abbey, which were 
destroyed by the Puritans in the seventeenth century. The Guild of 
Painters and Alabaster Men formed, 1525. The Reformation subse- 



206 



SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



[chap. XXX 



quently ended alabaster work. Henry VIII ordered all images which 
had been reverenced to be removed from churches. During the reign of 
Edward VI all images were ordered to be thrown down and plastic art 
was dead for some time. Much fine art work was destroyed during the 
Reformation. Before that time 568 churches were recorded to have been 
decorated with mural painting. For painters, see Art Supplement and 
Miniatures Art Supplement. 

LITERATURE. A great and glorious period. Great impulse to learn- 
ing, and the Universities nourishing. 

Some of the numerous men of letters born and working in the 
century: 



Skelton. 1460-1529. 

Linacre (Greek). 1460-15 24. 

John Leland. 1472-1555. 

Barclay. 1476-1552. 

Sir Thomas More. 1478-1535. 

Cranmer. 1489-1556. 

Udall (earliest comedy "Royster 

Doyster"). fl. 1550. 
Wyatt. 1 503-1 542. 
Sir Roger Ascham. c. 15 15-1568. 
Surrey (first English sonnets and 

blank verse). 1516-1547. 
John Heywood. d. 1565. 
Sackville. 1527-1608. 
Edward Coke. 1 550-1634. 
Sir Walter Raleigh. 155 2-1 6 18. 
Hooker. 15 53-1 600. 
Spenser. 1553-1599. 
Sir Philip Sidney. 1554-1586. 
Hollinshed and Stow (chronicles). 
Lyly (euphues and comedies). 1554- 

1606. 

Bodleian Library founded, 1598. 
Editions of the Bible. 1526 Tyndale's Bible. 
Bible. 1560 Geneva Bible. 1609 Douay Bible. 



Chapman. 1557-1634. 
Tottel's Miscellany. 1557. 
Tusser's Bucolics. 1557. 
Robert Greene, c. 1 560-1592. 
Bacon. 1561-1626. 
Drayton. 1563-1631. 
Marlowe. 1 564-1 593. 
Shakespeare. 1564-16 16. 
Nash. 1 565-1602. 
Donne. 1573-1631. 
Robert Burton. 1 576-1640. 
Ben Jonson. 1574-1637. 
Philip Massinger. 1 584-1640. 

(Beaumont. 1586-1616. 

/Fletcher. 15 76-1625. 
Thomas Hobbes. 1588-1679. 
Herrick. 1 591-1674. 
John Shirley. 15 94-1 666. 
Foxe's Book of Martyrs. 1563. 
And a great many others. 



1536 Coverdale's 



SCOTLAND 

1502 James IV. Married Princess Margaret, daughter of Henry VII. 

1513 Assisted France in her war with England. Lost the battle of 
Flodden Field; James killed. 

1513 James V, his infant son, crowned, his mother regent. In 1514 she 
married the Earl of Angus, and the Duke of Albany became regent. 
1524 Reformation beginning in Scotland. 1527 James assumed 
government and declined to join Henry VIII in the Reformation 
movement. He married Madeleine, daughter of Francis I of 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 207 

France. In 1538 she died, and he married Mary, daughter of the 
Duke of Guise. 
1542 War with Henry VIII. Lost the battle of Solway Firth and died. 
The Crown fell to his seven days old daughter, Mary Stuart. 
James Hamilton, Earl of Arran, regent. Scheme of Henry VIII to 
betroth Mary to the Prince of Wales rejected by Scotland. Inva- 
sion of Earl of Hertford to take her by force. Scotland ravaged by 
his army. Struggle against the Reformation led by Cardinal Beaton. 

1547 Knox assisted in opposition to the Cardinal and began preaching. 
Hertford, now Duke of Somerset, invaded Scotland. Scots lost the 
battle of Pinkie. 

1548 Mary Stuart was sent to France and affianced to the Dauphin 
Francis, and in 1558 married him. 

1550 Peace between England and Scotland. Struggle of the Reformation 
continued. 

1554 Mary of Guise, mother of the Queen Mary Stuart, became regent. 
1557 "First Covenant" of the Reformers signed. Civil wars of the 
Reformation. 

1 56 1 Queen Mary Stuart returned from France on the death of her 
husband, Francis II. 

1565 Married Darnley. 1566 Rizzio murdered. 1567 Darnley 
murdered. 1567 She married Bothwell. Civil war. Mary taken 
prisoner. Her infant son, James VI, crowned. 

1568 Mary escaped from Lochleven. Fled to England. Imprisoned in 
England for nineteen years. Factions of the followers of Mary and 
James VI kept Scotland in incessant turmoil during her imprison- 
ment. Four regents in succession, Moray, Lennox, Mar, and 
Morton. 

*578 James VI nominally assumed government under council of nobles. 
1585 Alliance with Elizabeth. 

1587 Mary Stuart beheaded at Fotheringay. 
LITERATURE. Revival of learning and growth of Literature during 

sixteenth century. During Reformation literature more of a moral than 

intellectual type. 

Hector Boece. 1470-1536. 



Douglas. 1474-1522. 
Lyndsay. 1490-1556. 
Dunbar, fl. 1500. 
John Knox. 1505-15 7 2. 
Buchanan. 1506-1582. 
Wilson, fl. 1553. 



Wedderburn's "Gude and Godlie 

Ballatis." 1567. 
Maitland. 
Bannatyne. 
Leslie. 
Rolland. 
James VI. 



The University of Edinburgh, 1582. 

IRELAND 
1 5 13 Kildare (Geroit Mor) died from wounds in a campaign with the / 
O'Carrolls. His son Gerald succeeded as ninth Earl. Constant dis- 
cords and complaints. Henry VIII sent Surrey to govern. Kildare 
subsequently allowed to resume government. Constant disorder. 



208 SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxx 

1534 Kildare was summoned to London. Imprisoned and died in the 

Tower. His son Thomas headed a revolt against Henry VIII. 

Fall of the Geraldines; Thomas with five of his uncles subsequently 

hanged at Tyburn. 
1540 Henry VIII crushed the opposition to his ecclesiastical changes 

and was declared Head of the Church; beginning of the religious 

struggle. 
1542 Henry assumed the title of King, instead of Lord, of Ireland. 
1556 First plantation of Colonists in Ireland by Mary. Religious 

struggle postponed. 
1561 Shane O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, headed an insurrection against 

Elizabeth and became dominant in Ulster. 1566 Defeated by Sir 

Henry Sidney and the O'Donnells. 
1567 Flight and assassination of O'Neill by the O'Donnells. 1573 

Devereux, Earl of Essex, expelled all the O'Neills from Ulster, and 

began its colonization. 
1580 Papal Bull annulling Elizabeth's authority. The Desmond 

rebellion headed by Fitzmaurice, assisted by Spaniards and Italians, 

defeated by Raleigh. 
1582 The Desmond rebellion ended with the death of Desmond Geraldine. 
1597 Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, headed a revolt of northern chiefs 

against England, defeated the English at Blackwater and became 

supreme as " The O'Neill." 
1596 Essex sent by Elizabeth to take supreme command; defeated 

disastrously by Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and recalled. He 

was shortly afterwards executed. 

AMERICA 

1500 Vincent Pinzon, one of the original companions of Columbus, 
reached the northern extremity of Brazil; and Cabral reached 
Brazil and claimed it for Portugal. 

1501 Amerigo Vespucci (Florentine), in the pay of Portugal, traced 
the coast line to Rio de Janeiro and gave his name to America. (He 
had also served Spain.) 

1502 Columbus, fourth voyage, landed on the coast of Honduras. 
1509 Magellan discovered America to be a continent. 1519 Entered 

service of Emperor Charles V. 
1520 Discovered the straits named after him and reached the Philippines. 
1520 Cortes conquered Mexico, found Aztec civilization advanced. 

1 52 1 Last Aztec emperor. 
1 53 1 Conquest of Peru and civilization of the Incas begun by Pizarro 

for Charles V. University founded at Lima by Charles V in 

I55 1 - 
1535 Cartier (French) discovered Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

1535 Mendoza (Spanish) founded Buenos Ayres. 

1537 Cortes discovered California. 

1578 Drake discovered New Albion on his voyage round the world. 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 209 

INDIA 

(Later Mohammedan period and Moghul Empire) 

15 1 7 Ibrahim Lodi succeeded to the throne of Delhi. His contest with 
his brother and divisions between Mohammedan kings and Hindu 
rajahs made the time a favourable one for an attack by Babar. 

1526 Babar, called "The Lion," the Moghul king of Kabul, a de- 
scendant of Tamerlane, entered India, seized the throne of Delhi, 
and put an end to the Lodi Dyn. The Rajputs of Chittor under 
Rana Sanga tried to check him, unsuccessfully. 

1530 Humayun, his son, succeeded. Opposed by his brother, Sher 
Khan; fled to Persia. 

1540 Sher Khan proclaimed himself emperor. On the whole a good 
ruler, though violent. 

1542 St. Francis Xavier reached Goa and introduced Christianity. 
Called the " Apostle of the Indies." 

1545 Islam Shah, son of Sher Khan. 1554 Mohammed Adil Shah 
seized the throne; rebellions and rivalries. 

1555 Humayun returned from Persia and recovered power. 

1556 Akbar, his son, sixteen years old, succeeded, called "the Guardian 
of mankind," a very great and celebrated man. Began a series of con- 
quests and greatly consolidated the empire. He endeavoured to estab- 
lish a new religion, " The Divine Faith," of which he was the head. 
A purely deistic system combining what he considered best from all 
the creeds. He forbade animal sacrifice, child marriage, and torture 
to extract confession, and Sati not to be enforced. During his 
reign the empire enjoyed tranquillity. He reformed the methods 
of tax collecting, assisted by Raja Todar Mai. He greatly en- 
couraged art and learning. 1585 Three English travellers came 
to his court with a letter from Queen Elizabeth, and he gave them 
safe conduct; they were John Newberry, who was never heard 
of after he went to the Punjab; Ralph Fitch, returned to Eng- 
land and subsequently assisted to form the East India Company; and 
William Leeds, who remained with Akbar as his court jeweller. 
Akbar died in 1605, leaving one of the great names of history. 

ARCHITECTURE. Moghul Indian Saracenic style began under 
Babar. 1526 Nasrat Shah of Bengal built the great Golden Mosque 
at Gaur. 1574 Akbar built his city Fathpur, full of fine buildings 
(geometric marble mosaic), and the Hall of Worship for debates on 
doctrinal and philosophical questions; painting greatly used for its decora- 
tion, some characteristics of Christian art included. Great Building 
period. Tombs of artistic design and elaborate decoration. 

ART. Great period of secular art. India again became an art centre? 
it developed vigorously under Akbar ; he was greatly interested in paint- 
ing. A list is known of seventeen artists at his court whose works were 
submitted to him weekly. Hindu and Mohammedan artists painted 
good miniature portraits in illustrating the history of contemporary life. 

p 



2io SIXTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxx 

LITERATURE. Faizi, a poet. His brother, Abul Fazl, wrote an 
account of Akbar's religious views. Tulsi Das, a descendant of Rama- 
nada, a reformer and poet. 

The Portuguese owned many settlements and had a monopoly of 
Oriental trade. 

CHINA. (Ming Dyn.) 

1506 Woutsong. Passed most of his time in hunting. Many revolts 
and misfortunes during his reign. First Europeans in China (Por- 
tuguese). 

1522 Chitsong. Cared more for poetry than governing. Three wars 
with Tartars, Japan, and Cochin China. 

1567 Montsong. Peace with Tartars. With his death the power and 
glory of the Ming period declined. 

1573 Wanleh. Well trained to rule. Japanese invasions. Trade 
opened with Portugal. Manchu power rising under the semi- 
fabulous Noorhachu. 

1552 St. Francis Xavier attempted to found Christian missions in 
China, but died in a few months. 1582 Matteo Ricci (Jesuit), 
founder of Christian missions in China. Composed Chinese books 
and taught till his death in China [610. Quarrels between the 
Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans prevented Christianity 
making the progress it might have made. 

ART. List of many Ming painters on p. 169. 

LITERATURE. Li Shih-Chen in 1578, after twenty-six years of labour, 
completed his great "Materia Medica," containing eleven thousand 
woodcuts. 1562 Hsu Kuang-Ch'i became a Christian and a great friend of 
Ricci. Wrote a great work on the new system of astronomy by the Jesuit 
Fathers, and an Encyclopaedia of Agriculture, and was appointed by the 
emperor to co-operate with the missionaries in reforming the National 
Calendar. A considerable number of novels during the Ming period. 
" Yii Chiao Li," a love-story of the fifteenth century; " Lieh Kuo," historical 
novel; "Ching Hua Yuan," historical novel; "Chin Ku Ch'i Kuan," mar- 
vellous tales, ancient and modern ; " P'ing Shan Leng Yen," a novel of the 
sixteenth or seventeenth century. Poets. Fang Shu-Shao and two women, 
Chao Ts'ai-Chi and Chao Li-Hua. 

Erh Tou Mei, " twice-flowering Plum Tree," sixteenth or seventeenth 
century, author unknown. Production of Plays well sustained during 
Ming period. Pi Pa Chi, or " Story of the Guitar," by Kao Tse-Ch'eng. 

JAPAN 

(End of Ashikaga Shogunate. Momoyama period and beginning 
of Tokugawa Shogunate) 

Shoguns possessed the power though emperors reigned contempor- 
aneously. 
1508 Yoshitana reassumed power, again deposed. Time of anarchy. 



chap, xxx] SIXTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 2 1 1 

1521 Yoshihara. Internal fighting and troubles continued. 1542 The 
Portuguese first appeared; a little later Mendez Pinto landed, 
well received. He introduced firearms, the matchlock. Trade with 
Portugal opened. 

1546 Yoshiteru. 1549 St. Francis Xavier in Japan. Compiled 
the Creed and Catechism in Japanese. 

1568 Yoshiaki. Affairs in great confusion and disorder. 

1573 Nobunaga. Called in to quell disturbances, deposed Yoshiaki 
assisted by Hideyoshi and Tokugawa Iyeyasu, two great 
generals. 

The Ashikaga Dyn. ended. National, political, and social life 
at a low level. Nobunaga struck a heavy blow at Buddhism 
and tried to destroy the Buddhist bonzes, being himself at heart 
a strong Shintoist. He protected the Christian missionaries under 
the Jesuit Padre Organtin, whose ultimate object was to convert 
everyone and make Japan subject to Portugal. Nagasaki became 
largely Christian and a Portuguese trading centre. In 1585 Gre- 
gory XIII forbade teachers in Japan except Jesuits. 

1582 Taiko Hideyoshi became chief leader on the death of Nobunaga. 
One of Japan's greatest men. The period called the Momoyama, 
after his splendid palace, was a period of great activity in war, 
industry, art, literature, and navigation. He endeavoured to conquer 
Corea and China ; his army brought immense treasure from Corea, 
and skilled Corean workmen, who introduced new arts and trades 
into Japan. Peace with Corea. 

1598 Tokugawa Iyeyasu followed on the death of Hideyoshi. Much 
opposition to him and disorder and struggles between him and the 
partisans of a son of Hideyoshi. 1600 Great battle of Sekigahara. 
Tokugawa Iyeyasu victorious, and he was elected Sei-i-tai Shogun 
in 1603 by the Emperor, the title remaining hereditary in his family 
till the overthrow of the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868. 

ART. Applied Arts, formerly used mostly for religious purposes, 
were immensely used for secular purposes from the time of Nobunaga and 
Hideyoshi. Hideyoshi was a passionate lover of the beautiful, and en- 
couraged every art effort, and converted the Tea Ceremony, once 
simple, into a vehicle for promoting the collection of costly art objects; 
it assumed a national character and gave a great impetus to the applied 
arts. Very long lists of Metal Chisellers and Metal Casters of this 
period. Many of them received titles of honour. Sancho cast the great 
bell for the temple of the Dai-Butsu at Kioto. Sanehisa cast the 
bronze image at Kioto, sixteen feet high. Lacquer immensely used for 
decoration of palaces and temples, the fashion inaugurated by Hideyoshi, 
and some very fine work done with elaborate and skilled ornament. 

The No Dance (Suru Gaku) became an essential accomplishment of 
the better classes. Nobunaga and Hideyoshi performed it. A great series 
of Masks made for use in the dance in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and 
eighteenth centuries. The Japanese catalogue shows two hundred and 



212 SIXTEENTH-SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES [ch. xxx-xxxi 

sixty varieties of masks recognized as the works of experts, and greatly 
valued in Japan. 

Painting. Motonobu (1470-1559) continued the Kano School 
founded by his father, Kano Masanobu. He also combined the Kano 
and Tosa schools, and married a daughter of Tosa Mitsunobu (1434- 
1525), founder of the Tosa school. The son of Motonobu, Shoyei, and 
his younger brother or nephew, Utanosuke, and his grandson, Yeitoku, 
continued the combination of the Kano and Tosa schools. A second 
phase of the Kano school arose, its typical production a series of Screens 
on gold grounds for the gorgeous castles of Hideyoshi and his barons, 
called the Momoyama style, after the splendid castle of Momoyama 
(now destroyed). 

Some of the most famous of the many painters of the period : 



Keishoki. b. c. 1500. 
Utanosuke. d. 1575. 
Kaiboku Yusho. 1533-1615. 
Yeitoku. 1 543-1 590. 
Kano Eitoka. 1 543-1 590. 
Sesson. b. c. 1550. 
Kano Sanraku. 1 573-1635. 

LITERATURE. 1560-1619 Fujiwara Seikwa, poet. Studied ancient 
Chinese literature, tried to facilitate such studies in Japan. Forerunner of 
a long series of students. 



Kano Osanoki. 1 577-1654. 
Iwasa Matabei. 15 78- 1650. 
Shokwado. 1 584-1 639. 
Sansetsu. 1589-165 1. 
Donkei. d. c. 1600. 

(,, . I sons of Motonobu. 



CHAPTER XXXI 

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 



Holy Roman Empire. — Germany. — Popes. — Rome. — Venice. — Florence. — Milan 
Mantua. — Italian Literature. — Greece. — Turkey. — France. — Holland. — Sweden. — 
Denmark. — Norway. — Spain. — The Two Sicilies. — Portugal. — Russia. — Poland. — 
England. — Scotland. — Ireland. — India. — China.— Japan. 






HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE 
EMPERORS OF GERMANY AND ITALY 






The Holy Roman Empire declining, the Emperors German 
Princes, and the importance of Italy among European powers passing 
away, except Venice and Savoy. 

" Into the Holy Roman Empire all the life of the ancient world had 
been gathered, and out of it all the life of the modern world arose " 
(Bryce). 
1602 Rudolf II. A weak ruler. Persecuted the Protestants in Bohemia 

and Hungary. Country torn by religious dissensions. 
1608 Protestant Union formed under Christian of Anhalt. 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 2 1 3 

1609 Catholic Union formed under Maximilian of Bavaria. 

161 2 Matthias succeeded on the death of Rudolf his brother. Having 

no heir himself, he endeavoured to secure the throne to Ferdinand 

of Styria, the only Hapsburg heir. 

16 1 8 Protestants of Bohemia renounced Ferdinand, and chose the Elector 
Palatine, Frederick V, as their king. Their revolt began the Thirty 
Years' War, which lasted till 1648. 

16 19 Ferdinand II succeeded as Emperor on death of Matthias. Made 
alliance with the Catholic League and Spain; the Pope, Paul V, 
joined him and the war spread all through Germany. 

1620 Ferdinand II victorious at the battle of the White Mountain. 

162 1 Protestant Union dissolved; subsequent persecution of the Pro- 
testants. Great increase of Ferdinand's power by his generals, 
Tilly and Wallenstein. 

1625 Renewal of war led by Christian IV of Denmark, at the head of 
the Protestant cause. 

1630 Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, became the head of the 
Protestants; he was defeated and killed at Liitzen, 1632. Subse- 
quently nearly all Europe was involved in the war. 

1637 Ferdinand III, son of Ferdinand II, succeeded. Married Mary, 
daughter of Philip III of Spain. 

1648 Peace of Westphalia concluded the war. The two religions 
put on a level. Germany ruined by the war, the authority of the 
Empire died down, and Germany became a confederation of small 
despotisms and oligarchies. 

1657 The union of Brandenburg and Prussia under Frederick 
William, the great Elector, made a new German power. 1701 
His son proclaimed King of Prussia as Frederick I of Prussia. 

1657 Ferdinand III died. The Imperial throne vacant for sixteen 
months. 

1658 Leopold I, his son, elected. Married (1) Margaret Theresa, 
daughter of Philip IV, King of Spain. (2) Claude, heiress of the 
Tyrol. (3) Eleanor, daughter of William of Neuburg. 

1663 War with the Turks, who threatened to invade Germany. 1664 
Turks defeated at battle of St. Gothard. 

1674 Leopold I and the great Elector of Brandenburg (Frederick 
William) and Denmark, joined the Dutch in their struggle against 
France. War declared on France. Leopold allied with Spain. Chief 
seat of the war the Netherlands and the Rhine. William, Prince of 
Orange, afterwards King of England, became famous in the war. 
England made treaty with Holland. Sent troops to Flanders. 
Louis XIV claimed Imperial Fiefs. 

The . great Elector made treaty with France, ending the first 
coalition against France. A second coalition formed by the 
Emperor Leopold, the Dutch, Spain, and Lorraine. War continued 
against France. 

Peace of Ryswick. French king stopped in his scheme of 
aggrandizement. 



2i 4 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxxi 

GERMANY 

ARCHITECTURE in Germany much hampered by the Thirty Years' 
War. Elias Holl of Augsburg, and Holzschuher at Nuremberg, leading 
architects. 

LITERATURE. During the Thirty Years' War French became the 
fashionable language. After the peace of Westphalia a renaissance of the 
vernacular literature arose. German vernacular literature backward com- 
pared with other countries. The religious wars threw back and inter- 
rupted the progress. The great era of German literature began in the 
following century. 
Weckherlin (sometime b. d. b. d. 

secretary to Milton) 1584-1651 Paul Fleming 1609-1640 

Frederick von Spee 1592-1635 Gremmelshausen 1615-1676 

Martin Opitz 1597-1639 Paul Gerhardt 1617-1676 

Moscherosch 1601-1708 Hoffmannswaldau 1618-1679 

Frederick von Logan 1604-1655 Caspar von Lohenstein 1635-1685 
Simon Dach 1 605-1 659 Barthold Brockes 1 680-1 747 

Andreas Gryphius I Gunther 1695-1723 

(Psalmodist) 1606- 167 5 i 

1571-1630 Kepler, one of the founders of modern astronomy. 

PAINTING. See Art Supplement. 

POPES 

1605 Paul V (Borghese). Struggle with Venice and Paolo Sarpi. 
Aided the Emperor Rudolf II against Hungary. Sent envoys to 
Japan and the Congo. Canonized Francesca Romana. Dome of 
St. Peter's completed. His nephew, Cardinal Scipio Borghese, built 
the Villa Borghese. 

162 1 Leo XI (Medici). Reigned twenty-six days. 

162 1 Gregory XV (Ludovisi). Brilliant man. Zealous promoter of 
Jesuitism. Canonized Loyola and Xavier. Established the Pro- 
paganda. His nephew laid out the Ludovisi Villa, famous for its art 
treasures. Supported Spain against Holland. 

1623 Urban VIII (Barberini). Highly cultured and witty man, as 
much king as priest. Great builder, especially of fortifications. Re- 
fused his aid to the Emperor in the Thirty Years' War. Made the 
Barberini Collection in the Palace. Permitted the condemnation of 
Galileo by the Inquisition. 

1644 Innocent X (Pamfili). Ruled by his sister-in-law, Donna Olympia 
Maldachini. The intrigues and feuds of his kinsfolk made him un- 
popular. Opposed Peace of Westphalia. 

1655 Alexander VII (Chigi). Eloquent and witty man. Christina, 
Queen of Sweden, daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, resided in Rome 
after her abdication. 

1667 Clement IX (Rospigliosi). A good and kind man. Kept the 
promotion of his relations in bounds. 

1669 Clement X (Altieri). 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



215 



1676 Innocent XI (Odescalchi). Opposed Louis XIV. 

1689 Alexander VIII (Ottoboni). A learned Venetian. 

1691 Innocent XII. Assisted Venice to carry on war with Turks; died 
1700. 
During the seventeenth century the power of the Papacy greatly 

decreased, and the centre of power was transferred to countries beyond 

the Alps. 

ROME 

1605 Paul V pulled down all the eastern section of St. Peter's, and em- 
ployed Maderna as architect, who altered Michael Angelo's design 
of the Greek cross to the Latin cross as intended by Raphael. He 
also added the vestibule and facade. It was dedicated 1626. 
Bernini began the colonnade in 1667. The architectural works 
of Paul V were gorgeous and colossal. 

VENICE 

1605 The Spanish party re-opened the quarrel between Venice and 
the Papacy. Fra Paolo Sarpi made adviser to the Senate, and 
Venice declined to surrender ancient rights, and was excom- 
municated by Pope Paul V. 

1607 Compromise arranged through the mediation of France. Sarpi 
endeavoured to obtain freedom of worship for the Protestants. 

161 8 Plot to deliver Venice into Spanish power. 

1645 Turks attacked Crete. Canea fell. After a resistance of twenty- 
four years Crete fell to the Turks in 1669. The defence conducted 
by General Francesco Morosini, who was made Doge in 1688. 

1685 Venetian victory over the Morea, under General Morosini. He 
conquered Patras and Corinth, and was called "The Pelopon- 
nesian." 

1687 Venetians, under Morosini, attacked and took Athens. 

1694 Morosini, now Doge, was assisted by Innocent XII to carry on the 
Turkish war. He died at Nauplia in the Peloponnesus. 

1699 End of the war with the Turks. Peace of Carlowitz and Venice 
restored all conquests north of the Isthmus of Corinth, but kept the 
Morea. 
Venetian power declining during the latter part of the century. 





DOGES 




Maria Grimani. 


1646 


1606 


Leonardo Donate 


1655 


1612 


Marc Antonio Memo. 


1656 


1615 


Giovanni Bembo. 


1656 


1618 


Nicolo Donato. 


1658 


1618 


Antonio Priuli. 


1659 


1623 


Francesco Contarini. 


1674 


1624 


Giovanni Cornaro. 


1683 


1630 


Nicolo Contarini. 


1688 


1631 


Francesco Erizzo. . 


1694 



Francesco Molini. 
Carlo Contarini. 
Francesco Cornaro. 
Bertuccio Valieri. 
Giovanni Pesaro. 
Domenico Contarini. 
Nicolo Sagredo. 
Marc Antonio Giustiniani. 
Francesco Morosini. 
Silvestro Valier. 



2l6 



SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxxi 



ARCHITECTURE. Some good examples of Renaissance, especially 
buildings by Longhena. After this century the decay of architecture 
rapidly set in. 1630 The great Plague; Sta Maria della Salute and 
other plague churches erected. 

PAINTING. See Art Supplement. 

FLORENCE 

The Medici grand dukes of Tuscany. 
1609 Cosimo II. Patron of art and science. 
162 1 Ferdinand II. Weak ruler. Prosperity of Florence waned. 
1670 Cosimo III with his son Giovanni Gaston. The Medici 

grand dukes of Tuscany ended 1723, and Tuscany was annexed to 

Austria. 

MILAN 
Annexed to Spain during the seventeenth century. 

MANTUA 

1627 The Duke of Mantua died. His heir a Frenchman, Duke of 
Nevers. The Emperor and Spain disputed the succession and drove him 
out. Urban VIII combined with Venice and called in French assistance. 
Louis XIII and Richelieu came with an army in 1629. Truce in 1631 and 
Duke of Nevers invested as Duke of Mantua. 

ITALIAN LITERATURE. The seventeenth century a period of 
stagnation and decline. The period of decadence known as the " Secen- 
tismo." Literature recovered itself again in the eighteenth century. Much 
of the writing of the seventeenth century was scientific. 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Pietro Sarpi 


1552 


1623 


Francesco Redi 


1626 


1699 


Chiabrera 


i55 2 


1637 


C. Maria Maggi 


1630 


1699 


Galileo 


1564 


1642 


Gregorio Leti 


1630 


170I 


Tommaso Campanella 


1568 


1639 


Vincenzo Filicaja 


1642 


1707 


G. B. Marini 


i5 6 9 


1625 


Menzini 


1646 


1704 


Davila 


1576 


1631 


Alessandro Guidi 


1650 


1712 


G. C. Vanini 


1585 


1626 


G. B. Vico 


1668 


1744 


Pietro della Valle 


1586 


1652 


P. Giannoni 


1676 


1748 


Fulvio Testi 


1593 


1646 









Salvator Rosa (1615-1673). Painter, poet, and musician. 
Torricelli (1608-1647). A pupil of Galileo. He invented the Bar- 
ometer to estimate the pressure of air in 1643. 

Sarpi corresponded with Galileo, and constructed a map of the moon. 



GREECE (under Turkish rule) 

1645 War between the Turks and Venetians for possession began in 
Greece. Turks landed in Crete and took Canea. 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 2 1 7 

1685 War between the Turks and Venetians for the Morea. Venetians 
under Morosini took the Morea and Corinth. 

1687 Venetians seized Athens; the Parthenon, then a mosque, was used 
by the Turks to store their powder, and was blown up by the Vene- 
tians, under Morosini, firing on the Acropolis. 

1688 Venetians left Athens. The Turks built a smaller mosque in the 
ruins of the Acropolis. 

1699 By the Peace of Carlo witz Venice restored all conquests north 
of the Isthmus of Corinth to the Turks, but retained the Morea. 
The Morea was retaken by the Turks in 17 15. 

TURKEY (Ottoman Empire) 

1603 Ahmed I. Peace of Sitavorok between Turkey and Austria. 

161 7 Mustapha I, his brother. Imbecile, deposed. 

1618 Osman II, son of Ahmed I. Fourteen years old. Murdered. 

1622 Mustapha I restored. 

1623 Murad IV, son of Ahmed. Eleven years old. Became a vigorous 
ruler and restored the Empire to something of its former glory. 
Campaigns against Persia to recover Bagdad, which has remained a 
Turkish possession. 

1640 Ibrahim. Cared only for his own pleasures. Crete occupied by 

the Turks, and war with Venice in 1645. 
1648 Mohammed IV. Siege of Candia commenced; taken in 

1664. War with Poland, Turks defeated by John Sobiesky. 

Scheme to conquer Germany. Vienna besieged. Saved by John 

Sobiesky in 1683. Russia declared war against the Turks in 1686. 

Venetians and the Imperialists combined against the Turks in 

Greece in 1687. Athens bombarded by the Venetians. Sultan 

deposed by the soldiers. 
1687 Suleiman II. Mutiny and reign of terror in Constantinople. 

Turkey lost all possessions beyond the Danube. Transylvania 

became a province of Hungary. 
1691 Ahmed II, his brother. Great defeat by Austrians. His reign 

marked by pestilences and domestic insurrection. 
1695 Mustapha II, son of Mohammed IV. Tried to restore the 

Empire from its low condition. Defeated the Austrian army, but 

was subsequently defeated by the Austrians. 
1699 Peace of Carlowitz concluded with Austria, Venice, Russia, 

and Poland through the intervention of England and Holland. 

FRANCE 

1609 Henry IV allied with the Protestant Union against the Empire. 
He and Sully formed a scheme for the reconstruction of Europe. 
1 6 10 Assassinated by Ravillac. End of the intrigue against the 
Hapsburgs. 

1610 Louis XIII a child. The Queen Mother, Marie de Medici, 
regent. Disputes for power with Conde. Civil war. 



2i8 SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxxi 

i 615 Louis married Anne of Austria, Infanta of Spain, daughter of 

Philip III, King of Spain. 
1616 Richelieu made Secretary of State for War. 1622 Made Cardinal. 

Struggle for power between him and Marie de Medici. He became 

practically ruler of France, and France began to succeed Spain as 

a European power of the first rank. 
1625 Revolt of Huguenots under Soubise. Defeated, he escaped to 

England in 1627. Second revolt of the Huguenots. War with 

England declared. 
1627 Richelieu Superintendent General of Commerce and Navigation. 
1629 Huguenot revolt ended. 1630 Richelieu in Italy to settle the 

Mantuan succession. 
1635 France joined in the Thirty Years' War. Declared war with 

Spain. Treaties with the United Netherland Provinces and Italian 

Princes. 1641 Spanish invasion. 

1642 French power dominant in Savoy. Death of Richelieu, who was 
followed by Mazarin. 

1643 Louis XIV five years old. Regency of his mother, Anne of 
Austria, the Infanta of Spain. War of the Fronde. Turenne 
and Conde led the French army in the Thirty Years' War. 

1657 Treaty with England. Louis XIV a candidate for the vacant 

Imperial throne. 
1660 Louis married Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain. 

1 66 1 He assumed the government on the death of Mazarin. 

1665 Louis XIV claimed part of the Netherlands in right of his wife (on 
the death of Philip IV of Spain). 

1666 War declared with England. First emigration of Huguenots in 
consequence of persecution. 

1672 Louis XIV attacked the United Netherlands. 1678-9 Peace made, 
France keeping her conquests in Spanish Netherlands, the 
county of Burgundy, and some Imperial towns in Elsass. 
1 68 1 Louis XIV continued annexing parts of Elsass. Seized Strassburg, 

Avignon, etc. 
1689 Grand Alliance formed to prevent further French aggrandize- 
ments, led by William III of England, Prince of Orange. War 
with Spain, Germany, and England till 1697; Peace of Ryswick. 
The three armies of the Rhine, Savoy, and the Netherlands had 
greatly drained the resources of France. 
Louis XIV, Le grand Monarque, died 17 15, after a reign of seventy- 
two years, the longest recorded in Europe; marked by three stages, his 
minority, a time of turbulence and disorder; his manhood, a triumph 
of magnificence and splendour; his old age, a series of reverses and 
mortification. 

The three great statesmen of France of the seventeenth century: 

1. Armand du Plessis, Cardinal de Richelieu, born 1585, died 1642. 

2. Cardinal Mazarin, born 1602, died 1661. Succeeded Richelieu in 

1642. 

3. Jean Baptiste Colbert, born 16 19, died 1683. Succeeded Mazarin in 

1661. 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



219. 



Building of the Louvre continued under Henry IV, Louis XIII, and 
Louis XIV. Bernini was summoned from Rome to assist in the building 
works in progress in Paris by Louis XIV. His plans for the Louvre were 
not accepted. The work was suspended during the time of Louis XV and 
Louis XVI. It was resumed by Napoleon I and finished by Napoleon III 
in the following century. 1661 Palace of Versailles begun; previously 
only a hunting-box built by Louis XIII. 

French Academy founded by Richelieu. The great dictionary 
which it began in 1694 is a landmark of the language. Academies of 
Inscriptions, of Sciences, and of Architecture founded by Colbert, 
and also the French School in Rome. 

LITERATURE. A great literary period, and also many men of science 
and medicine. The salon known as " Hotel Rambouillet " opened by 
Catherine de Vivonne, Marquise de Rambouillet. It was the resort of all 
the great literary men of the time. Other salons followed. 



Malherbe 
Alexandre Hardy 
Francois de Sales 
Theophile de Viau 
St. Vincent de Paul 
Descartes 
Balzac 
Corneille 
Rotrou 
Scarron 

Astree of Honore d'Urfe 
published 161 0-1626 
La Rochefoucauld 
St. Evremond 
Cardinal de Retz 
Cyrano de Bergerac 
La Fontaine 
Moliere 
Pascal 

Mme de Sevigne 
Bossuet 

PAINTERS. See Art Supplement. 



B. 


D. 


1555 


1628 


1560 C 


• 1630 


1568 


1622 




1626 


1576 


1660 


I59 2 


1650 


1594 


1654 


1606 


1684 


1609 


1650 


l6lO 


1660 


1613 


1676 


1613 


1703 


1614 


1679 


1619 


1655 


l62I 


1695 


l622 


1673 


1623 


1662 


1626 


1696 


1627 


1704 



B. 


D. 


Charles Perrault 1628 


1703 


Huet 1630 


1721 


Mme de Lafayette (earli- 




est modern novels) 1634 


1693 


Mme de Maintenon 1635 


1719 


Boileau 1636 


1711 


Malebranche 1638 


1715 


Racine 1 639 


1699 


La Bruyere 1645 


1696 


Mme Guyon (she and 




the Quietists perse- 




cuted 1687) 1648 


1717 


Fenelon 1651 


1715 


Le Bobier de Fontenelle 1657 


i7S7 


Rapin 1661 


1725 


Rollin 1 66 1 


1741 


Massillon 1663 


1712 


St. Simon 1675 


1755 


Montesquieu 1689 


1755 


Voltaire 1694 


177& 



HOLLAND (Netherlands) 

1 60 1 War continued between the Archduke Albert, governor of the 
Southern Netherlands, and Maurice of Orange. Siege of Ostend 
by the Spaniards, lasting three years. 1604 Ostend fell to the 
Spaniards under Spinola. Maurice and the States not at one. 

1 602 Dutch East India Company formed. The town of Batavia 
founded in Java. 

1607 Spanish fleet destroyed by the Dutch in Bay of Gibraltar. 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxxi 



1609 Truce with Spain for twelve years. Theological conflict began 
in Holland with the dissensions between Arminius and Gomar. 
1619 Grotius fled to France. Barneveldt executed. End of theo- 
logical war. 

162 1 End of twelve years' truce. Renewal of hostilities with Spain, and 
the Dutch became involved in the Thirty Years' War. Rivalry 
with England. 

1625 Maurice of Orange died. His brother, Frederick Henry, suc- 
ceeded as Stadtholder and Captain-General. 

1637 Series of great naval triumphs under Van Tromp turning the 
scale against Spain. 

1 64 1 Frederick's son William betrothed to Mary, the eldest daughter 
of Charles I of England. 

1647 William II succeeded on the death of Frederick Henry. 

1648 Peace concluded with Spain. Independence of Holland and the 
seven Northern United Provinces acknowledged. William II and 
Holland not in good accord. 

1650 William II died. His son William was born a few days after. 
The States chiefly ruled by John De Witt. 1652 War with England 
followed the English Navigation Act. Struggle between the Dutch 
under De Ruyter and Van Tromp, and the English under Blake 
and Monk for the lordship of the seas. 
1663 Capture of all the Portuguese possessions in India except Goa. 
1672 Revolution. De Witt murdered and William III became Stadt- 
holder. The French invaded Holland. 1677 William III 
married Mary, daughter of James Duke of York, who was after- 
wards James II of England. 
1678 Independence secured by the Dutch. 

1689 William and Mary became King and Queen of England. 
1697 General armistice with France. 

The prosperity and commerce of the Netherlands progressed greatly. 
The greater part of Brazil, Malacca, Ceylon, Java, and other islands con- 
quered. 1637 The extraordinary passion for speculation in tulip bulbs. 

LITERATURE. 1600- 1650 the blossoming time of Dutch literature. 
A decline set in at the end of the century. 



Kats 

Hooft 

Grotius 

Brederoo 

Samuel Coster 

Vos 

Vondel 

Starter 

Constantijn Huygens 

Heemskerk 

Anslo 



B. D. 

1577 1660 
1581 1647 
1583 1645 
1585 1618 
d. after 1648 
1667 
1587 1679 

1594 

1596 1687 

1597 1656 
1626 1669 



Brandt 

Oudaen 

Thomas Asselijn 

Spinoza 

Bekker 

Focquenbrock 

Goes 

Luiken 

Heinsius 

Justus van Effen 



B. D. 

1626 1685 

1628 1692 

1630 1695 

1632 1677 

1634 1698 

1640 1679 

1647 1684 

1649 1708 

* 6 55 

1684 1735 



chap, xxxi] SEVENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



SWEDEN 

1600 Charles IX, son of Gustavus Vasa. War with Denmark just before 
he died. 

161 1 Gustavus Adolphus. Most illustrious of the Swedish kings; 
high intellectual and moral qualities. War with Denmark con- 
cluded, 161 3. War with Poland. 

1630 Intervened in the Thirty Years' War in Germany in favour of the 
Protestants. Took Munich. Was killed at battle of Liitzen, 1632. 

1632 Christina, his daughter. Clever and cultivated woman. War with 
Denmark, 1643-5. Concluded peace with Germany (Westphalia) 
in 1648. Abdicated in favour of her cousin, Charles Augustus. 

1654 Charles X. War with Poland, whose king claimed to be heir to 
the Swedish throne, and war with Russia. Several wars with Den- 
mark, and Copenhagen was besieged unsuccessfully. 

1660 Charles XI. A vigorous administrator. War with Denmark con- 
tinued till 1679. A period of repose, after a century of warfare, 
followed. He married a princess of Denmark. 

1697 Charles XII. Very brilliant man. Alliance against him between 
Augustus II of Poland and Saxony, Peter I of Russia, and Fred- 
erick IV of Denmark. 

1700 Beginning of the "Northern War" by Charles XII against the 
Allies, during which he was killed in 1 7 1 8, and Sweden sank from 
the very high position she had attained among the European 
powers. 

LITERATURE. With the accession of Charles IX and the development 
of Swedish greatness, literature asserted itself in more vigorous forms. 
Drama and poetry rose. Prose productions were of less importance. 

Gustavus Adolphus the most polished writer of his time. His 
speeches take an important place in the development of the language. 

B. 

Johannes Messenius 
Olai Asteropherus 
Johannes Buraeus (royal 

librarian and great 

man of letters) 1568 

Georg Stjernhjelm 1598 

Other writers of verse and 
period of literature followed in the eighteenth century. 

DENMARK 

1626 Christian IV, who had taken up the Protestant cause in the Thirty 
Years' War, was defeated by Wallenstein. Peace of Liibeck 
concluded with Germany 1629. Contest and war with Sweden from 
1637 till 1645. 

1648 Frederick III. Renewed war with Sweden. Copenhagen besieged 



D. 




B. D. 


1636 


Gustave Rosenhane 


1619 1684 


1647 


Olaf Rudbeck 


1630 1702 




Urban Hjarne 


1641 1724 




G. E. Dahlstjerna 


l66l 1709 


1652 


Johan Runius 


1679 1713 


1672 






some 1 


iterary ecclesiastics. A 


more brilliant 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxxi 



several times. Peace and treaty in 1660. A popular king and good 

ruler. 
1670 Christian V. Renewed war with Sweden. Treaty in 1679. The 

King of Sweden, Charles XI, married a Danish princess. 
1699 Frederick IV. Renewed war with Sweden. 

LITERATURE. C. 1530-1680 Final and fourth period of the develop- 
ment of the language, and literature practised in the vernacular. 



Vedel 

Arild Hvitfeld 
Peder Claussen 
Anders Arrebo 
Anders B or ding 



B. 

1542 
1604 

1545 
1587 
1619 



D. 
1616 

1623 
1637 
1677 



B. 



Thomas Kingo (hymns) 1634 
Toger Reenberg 1656 

Ludvig Holberg 1684 

H. A. Brorson (hymns) 1 694 



D. 

1703 
1742 

1754 
1764 



Brigitta Thott (translated classics). 



NORWAY 

Remained united to Denmark after the Kalmar Union was broken up 
in the sixteenth century. In 18 14 Norway was transferred to Sweden by 
the Peace of Kiel. 



SPAIN 
(Declining in the seventeenth century) 

Fleet destroyed by the Dutch. 
Truce with the Netherlands for twelve years. 
Involved in the Thirty Years' War, Philip III assisting Fer- 
dinand II. 

Philip IV succeeded. Married (1st) Elizabeth, daughter of 
Henry IV of France; (2nd) Maria Anna, daughter of Emperor 
Ferdinand III. End of truce with Netherlands, war recom- 
menced. 

Treasure fleet captured by the Dutch, who took Java, Ceylon, 
Malacca, etc. 

Struggle to defend the Southern Netherlands against the Dutch. 
At war with France till 1659, Spain not being included in the 
Treaty of Westphalia. 
End of Spanish rule in Portugal. 

Defeated by Turenne at the battle of the Dunes. Peace of the 
Pyrenees, marking the recognition of scientific frontier of France 
in the south. 

Charles II succeeded, last representative of the Hapsburgs, a 
child. His mother, Maria Anna of Austria, regent. He was 
a weak, imbecile man, and having no heirs the question of the 
succession began, which ended in the War of Succession from 
1701 to 1715. 

Peace between Spain and Portugal, independence of Portugal 
recognized. 

ARCHITECTURE and Sculpture. The Baroque style, overloaded 
and extravagant. Old altar-pieces of the Gothic period, and also of the 



1607 
1609 
1620 

1621 



1628 

1629 
1635 

1640 
1659 



1666 



1668 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



223 



sixteenth century, were destroyed to make way for the new. The lowest 
level of Plastic art is marked by the wooden dolls with apparatus for 
moving the head, eyes, and mouth, with real hair and dresses, the head 
and arms alone being carved; ex. the Transparente of Toledo Cathedral 
by Narciso Tome\ 

The Baroque style was more worthily represented by the facade of 
Santiago de Compostela and the royal palace of the Bourbons of Madrid. 

PAINTING. See Art Supplement. 

LITERATURE. At its zenith at the end of the sixteenth century and 
beginning of the seventeenth century. Great range of subjects for the 
drama, new type of novel, of manners, romance, and adventure. 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Juan de Mariana 


1536 


1623 


Alarcon 


?i 5 8i 


1639 


Cervantes 


1547 


1616 


Villamediana 


1582 


l622 


Gongora 


1561 


1627 


Rioja 


?i 5 86 


1659 


Argensola 


1562 


1631 


Mendoza 


?i5 9 o 


1644 


Lope de Vega 


1562 


1635 


Villegas 


1596 


1669 


Castro y Bellvis 


1569 


1631 


Calderon 


1600 


l68l 


Guevara 


i57o 


1643 


Gracian 


1601 


1658 


Tirso de Molina 


i57i 


1648 


Montalban 


1602 


1638 


Quevedo 


1580 


1645 


Zorrilla 


1607 


l66l 


Paravicino 


1580 


I 6 33 


Cavana 


1618 


1669 


Perez de Hita 


fl. 1604 




Molinos 


1627 


1697 


Espinel 




1634 


and others. 







THE TWO SICILIES 
Naples and Sicily under the sovereignty of Spain. 



PORTUGAL 



1634 



General discontent at Spanish dominion, risings in Lisbon and 
Evara. 

1640 Under the nominal government of Margaret of Savoy, Duchess 
of Mantua. Revolution. John IV crowned (Duke of Braganza). 
The whole of Portugal rose, Spaniards expelled. 

1656 John IV died. A feeble ruler, and Portugal involved in wars. 
Affonso VI succeeded. Feeble ruler. Married Marie Francoise, 
granddaughter of Henry IV of France. She divorced him and 
married his brother, Dom Pedro, who shut up the King and 
assumed the regency till Affonso died. 1660 Portugal possessed 
the whole of Brazil. 

1683 Dom Pedro proclaimed king as Pedro II. 
LITERATURE. Continuation of the Golden Age of Portuguese 

literature. Epic poems, drama, romance, and history. 

RUSSIA (time of confusion till 1613) 

A usurper, calling himself Dmitri, son of Ivan the Terrible, 
opposed Boris. 



1603 



224 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxxi 

1605 Feodor II, son of Boris, proclaimed Tsar on death of Boris; he 
was murdered, and Dmitri acknowledged. 

1605 Dmitri was murdered and Basil Shuiski elected. Invasion of 
Poles. Basil made prisoner. Crown offered to Ladislaus, son of the 
Polish king. Poles driven out. The country had suffered much, and 
treasure was taken to Poland. 

1613 Michael Romanoff elected Tzar. War with Ladislaus, who kept 
the title of Tsar. He was repulsed. Michael associated his father, 
Phelarete, the Greek Patriarch, with himself in office. All ukazes 
were published in their joint names. Condition of the country 
developed and opened to Western civilization. 

1645 Alexis succeeded. A good ruler. Codified the Russian laws. 

1654 War with Poland. 

1676 Feodor III succeeded. Married (1) Maria Miloslavskaia, and 
had two sons, Feodor and Ivan; (2) Natalia Narushkina, and had a 
son, Peter, and a daughter, Natalia. Books of pedigrees destroyed. 

1682 On his death rival factions arose of the followers of the children 
of his two wives. Peter and Ivan declared joint sovereigns, and 
during their minority Sophia, daughter of Alexis, regent. 

1689 Peter assumed the rule, Peter the Great. Ivan, infirm in 
body and mind, led a retired life till he died in 1696. Peter 
married Martha Stravrouska, a peasant, after divorcing his first 
wife. Martha took the name of Catherine when baptized. He 
put an end to the Oriental seclusion of women and the Oriental 
dress of the men. Began building St. Petersburg 1703; died 1725. 

POLAND 

1683 John Sobieski chosen king. Victories over the Turks. Recovery 
of Moldavia and Wallachia. 

1697 Frederick August, Elector of Saxony, chosen king, called 
August the Strong. 

ENGLAND 

1 60 1 Essex executed. Conquest of Ireland completed by Mountjoy. 

1603 James VI of Scotland ascended the English throne (on death 
of Elizabeth) as James I of England ; son of Mary Queen of Scots 
and Darnley. Catholic reaction. 

1605 Gunpowder plot by the Catholics to destroy King and Parlia- 
ment. Growth of idea of Divine right of kings. James offended 
Catholics and Protestants, both wished for modification of the 
laws. 

161 5 George Villiers, favourite of the King and his son Charles, created 
Duke of Buckingham. Quarrels between the King and Parlia- 
ment beginning. 1622 James dissolved the Parliament. Discontent 
in Church and State. His daughter Elizabeth married Frederick, 
Elector Palatine. 

1625 Charles I. Married Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII, by 






chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 225 

proxy. 1626 Impeachment of Buckingham by Parliament. 1627 
War with France and Spain. 1628 Buckingham murdered. 1629 
Charles dissolved Parliament and ruled alone. Star Chamber 
used to levy supplies. 1637 Trial of Hampden for refusing to pay 
ship money. 

1639 Scots armed against the King to maintain Calvinism. 

1640 Parliament summoned by Charles to obtain supplies; dissolved 
in three weeks. Scots entered England. Charles re-assembled 
Parliament, the "Long Parliament." The Star Chamber 
abolished. 1641 Civil War began between Charles and the 
Parliament; the Cavaliers and the Roundheads. 1644 Oliver 
Cromwell took command of the Roundhead army, defeated 
Charles at Marston Moor. 1646 Self denying Ordinance 
passed by Roundheads. Charles totally defeated at Naseby. 
Surrendered to the Scottish army. 1647 Given up to the English 
Parliament. Flight of Charles to Isle of Wight. 

1647 Parliament and Army began to quarrel. The army seized 
the King. 

1649 Charles accused of treason to the nation and beheaded. Com- 
monwealth proclaimed. 1650 Battle of Dunbar. Cromwell 
defeated the Scots. 1651 Defeated Charles II, who escaped to 
France. Navigation Act against the Dutch, and war with 
Holland began, 1652. 

1653 Long Parliament driven out by Cromwell, followed by Bare- 
bones Parliament, but soon dissolved; followed by " Instru- 
ment of Government." Cromwell made Lord Protector 
1657 Refused title of king; died 1658. 

1658 Richard Cromwell, his son, followed; inefficient, resigned. A 
time of confusion. 

1660 Charles II landed. Restoration. 1662 Act of Uniformity 
re-enacted and Puritan clergy driven out. Marriage of Charles with 
Catharine of Braganza (Portugal). 

1665 War with Holland. The Great Plague; the Fire of London 
followed in 1666. Constant dissension between Catholics and 
Puritans. 1668 Triple Alliance between England, Sweden, and 
Holland against France. 1672 War with Holland. 1673 The 
Test Act. 1677 Mary, elder daughter of James, younger son of 
Charles I, married her cousin William of Orange, son of Mary, 
the eldest daughter of Charles I. 1678 Treaty with Holland. Rye 
House Plot to overthrow Church and Government. 

1685 James II, younger son of Charles I, succeeded. Freedom of 
conscience declared. Insurrection. Battle of Sedgemoor. 1687 Par- 
liament dissolved. Religious dissensions. 
William of Orange invited to come to England. 
James II fled to France. Declaration of rights. William and 
Mary made king and queen. Toleration Act. Ireland at- 
tempted separation, and James II joined with Ireland. 
Battle of the Boyne. James II fled to France. 1692 War with 
France, invasion by French fleet attempted. 

Q 



226 



SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. [chap, xxx 



1694 Queen Mary died. 1695 Penal laws enforced against Catholics 
in Ireland. 

1 702 William III died. Succeeded by Queen Anne, younger daughter 

of James II. 

England's Colonial and commercial prosperity and sea power rose. 

16S0 East India Company received its charter; 1698 New East India 

Company received its charter; was later united with the old company. 

1695 Bank of England established. 1696 First Fire Insurance Office. 
ARCHITECTURE AND ART. An effort to revive the Gothic style 

was made in the time of James I, especially at Oxford, and the Jacobean 
domestic style arose. Another effort to revive Gothic was made in the time 
of Charles I. Neither was very successful. Renaissance (classical) 
period commenced with Inigo Jones (b. 1575, d. 1652), who studied 
in Italy. Called the English Palladio; ex. Church of St. Paul, Covent 
Garden, and Ashburnham House. Great design for Whitehall by Inigo 
Jones, the banqueting hall only carried out. Sir Christopher Wren, 
1632-1723, rebuilt St. Paul's Cathedral after the Great Fire of 1666, 
affixing an Italian front. Rebuilt fifty or more City churches after the 
fire; ex. Bow Church and St. Bride's, with the steeples peculiar to his 
style. He visited Bernini in Paris 1665. 

Sculpture had practically ceased for some generations after the 
extinction of the Gothic school; it was revived by Nicholas Stone, 
b. 1586, d. 1647. He studied at Amsterdam. Worked for Inigo Jones; 
ex. tombs in Westminster. Followed by his pupil, Caius Gabriel Cibber, 
a German, b. 1630, d. 1700. Grinling Gibbons, b. 1648, d. 1721; 
ex. bronze statue of James II; good wood-carving; ex. stalls of St. Paul's, 
and decorative work, ex. ceiling at Petworth. 

Mortlock tapestry manufactory set up in the time of James I. 
Raphael's cartoons woven there. (Painting. See Art Supplement and 
Miniature Supplement.} 

LITERATURE. Very productive period. 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Chapman 


1557 


1634 


Izaak Walton 


1595 


1667 


Bacon 


1561 


1626 


Chillingworth 


1602 


1644 


Drayton 


1563 


1631 


Sir T. Browne 


1605 


1683 


Shakespeare 


1564 


1616 


Clarendon 


1608 


1671 


Donne 


1573 


1631 


Milton 


1608 


1674 


Ben Jonson 


1574 


1637 


Sir W. Hall 


1609 


1676 


Fletcher 


1576 


1625 


Jeremy Taylor 


1613 


1667 


Burton 


1576 


1640 


Baxter 


1615 


169I 


Massinger 


1584 


1640 


Algernon Sidney 


1617 


16S3 


Selden 


1584 


1654 


John Evelyn 


1620 


1706 


Beaumont 


1586 


I6l6 


John Bunyan 


1628 


1688 


Hobbes 


1588 


1679 


Sir R. Temple 


1628 


1698 


Herrick 


i59i 


1674 


Dryden 


1631 


170O 


George Herbert 


1593 


1633 


Pepys 


1632 


1702 


John Shirley 


1594 


1666 


John Locke 


1632 


1704 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 



227 



Roscommon 
Newton 
Burnett 
William Penn 
Otway 
Tyndale 
Defoe 
Matthew Henry 



B. 


D. 


1633 


1685 


1642 


1727 


1643 


1715 


1644 


T718 


1651 


l68 5 


1657 


1733 


l66l 


1731 


1662 


1714 



Matthew Prior 

Swift 

Congreve 

Steele 

Colley Cibber 

Addison 

Pope 

Gay 



B. D. 

1664 1724 

1667 1745 

1670 I729 

1671 1729 

1671 1757 

1672 1719 
1688 1744 



1688 



1732 



The thirteen Cavalier Poets: 



Drummond 
T. Carew 
T. Randolph 
Wm. Habington 
Wm. Davenant 
Edmund Waller 
Sir J. Suckling 



B. 

158S 
1589 
1605 
1605 
1605 
1605 
1609 



D. 
1649 
1639 
1634 

1645 
1668 
1687 
1 64 1 





B. 


D. 


Wm. Cartwright 


1611 


1643 


Montrose 


1612 


1650 


J. Cleveland 


1613 


1659 


Sir J. Denham 


1615 


1688 


R. Lovelace 


1618 


1658 


A. Cowley 


1618 


1667 



Harvey, 1578-1657 (discovered true theory of circulation of blood). 

1622 First English Newspaper. 

1628 Dr. Bull composed the National Anthem. 

1649 Eikon Basilike published. Written by Charles I. 

1660 Royal Society founded. 

1695 Liberty of the Press established. 

Quakerism founded by George Fox (b. 1624, d. 1690). 

PAINTING. See Art Supplement. 



SCOTLAND 

1603 James VI. Succeeded to the throne of England as James I. 

1605 James I endeavoured to obtain religious unity. Banished Catholic 
priests and established Protestantism. 

1 6 10 Episcopacy restored by the Scottish Parliament. Presbyterian 
worship retained. Dissensions arose. 

1625 Charles I succeeded in England. Crowned at Holyrood, 1633. 
The people expecting Roman Catholicism to be re-introduced, great 
religious dissensions ensued. 

1638 The Covenant signed. 1630 The Covenanters took up arms, 
took Newcastle. Peace concluded. 

1643 Copy of the Solemn League and Covenant largely signed in 
London. Scottish army of Covenanters assisted English Parliament- 
ary army, and engaged in Battle of Marston Moor, 1644. 

1647 The army gave Charles I over to the English Parliament, and 
withdrew. 



228 SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A .D. [chap, xxxi 

1649 Proclaimed Charles II king on execution of Charles I. He 

landed from Holland 1650. 
1651 Charles II crowned at Scone. Entered England with Scottish 

army. Defeated at Worcester, escaped to the Continent. Cromwell 

placed the government of Scotland in the hands of a council of nine 

men, mostly Englishmen. 

IRELAND 

1600 Mountjoy succeeded Essex in command. Earl Tyrone (the O'Neill) 
defeated and submitted. 

161 1 Ulster (the land belonging to Earls Tyrone and Tyrconnel) vested 
in the Crown; the Irish people removed from their strongholds, 
and the land divided between Scottish and English settlers, who 
were forbidden to intermarry with the Irish. 

1632 Strafford became Lord Lieutenant; tyrannical ruler; the country 
cruelly outraged. 

1645 Rebellion in Ulster, and civil war between settlers and Irish. 

1649 Cromwell and Ireton subdued and re-divided Ireland. 

1660 Charles II. Country more at peace, except for religious dissen- 
sions. Duke of Ormonde, Lord Lieutenant. 

1689 James II, a fugitive in France, landed with French troops. Sum- 
moned a Parliament which confiscated the property of Protestants; 
they escaped to Ulster. James, the French, and the Catholic Celts 
were defeated by William III at the Battle of the Boyne, 1690. 

1695 Penal laws enforced against Catholics. 

INDIA (later Mohammedan period, Moghul rule) 

1605 Akbar died, leaving one of the greatest names in history. 

1605 Jahangir, his son, not his equal, but a fair ruler. Married the 

celebrated Persian, Nur Jahan. She played an important part 

in the government, assisted by her brother Asaf Khan. Jahangir 

was a great patron of the fine arts. 
1615 Sir Thomas Roe sent by James I on an embassy. 
1628 Shah Jahan, son of Jahangir. Held a magnificent court. The 

Moghul Empire at a high point of glory. 

1657 He retired through ill health, committed the rule to his eldest son, 
Dara. Power contested by the other three sons, Shuja, Aurangzeb, 
and Murad. Shuja disappeared. Aurangzeb captured and executed 
Dara and Murad, and imprisoned his old father, but treated him 
well, and took the rule. 

1658 Aurangzeb Alamgu I. War with the Marathas in the Deccan. 
A stern and pious Mohammedan. He persecuted the Hindus, and 
the Rajputs rose in rebellion. A man of immense industry, but not 
a successful ruler; his religious zeal damaged his Empire. En- 
deavoured to divide his rule between his three sons. 

1690 Granted land to the English at Sulanati, now Calcutta. He died 
1702. His Empire declined under a line of degenerate Moghul 
successors. 



chap, xxxi] SE VENTEENTH CENTUR Y A.D. 229 

ARCHITECTURE. Tomb of Akbar, which he built himself, and 
used, according to custom, as a place of festivity and rendezvous for 
his friends. He owned the Koh-i-nor diamond, which was placed by 
him in his mausoleum. Shah Jahan, a great builder of magnificent 
buildings. A change came over the style of architecture; force and 
originality gave way to a more delicate elegance and refinement of detail. 
Among his buildings are : the Taj Mahal, Agra, over the grave of his 
wife, Mumtaz Mahal; the Musjid Jahannama Mosque at Delhi in 
honour of his daughter, Jahan Ara, Begum; it contains the precious 
relic, a hair from the Prophet's beard; the Pearl Mosque at Agra, the 
Moti Musjid ; the Diwan-i-Khas at Delhi, or Hall of Private Audience; 
the Diwan-i-Am, or Hall of Public Audience, with the Peacock 
Throne, set with jewels, now in the Shah's palace at Teheran. 

Aurangzeb pulled down Hindu temples and erected Mohammedan 
mosques on their sites with their materials. Style of architecture declining. 

CHINA (end of Ming, beginning of Manchu [Ching] Dyn.) 

1610 Manchu Tartars invaded China and gained great victories. 

1620 Wanleh died, broken-hearted. His son, Tai-Chang Kwantsong, 
followed; soon died. 

162 1 Chiti (the Unhappy). Manchus, under Noorhachu, advancing 
greatly in power. 

1624 Hitsong. Manchus advancing under Taitsong. Country also 
harassed by rebels. 

1628 Hoaitsong, last Ming Emperor. 

1635 Taitsong, the Manchu. After great successes he assumed the 
title of Emperor, but conquests still incomplete. War between 
Manchus, Chinese, and rebels. 

1644 Chuntche or Chitsou. First Manchu Emperor. Definitely 
took the throne. Set up central power of the Dyn. at Pekin, 
assisted by his uncle, Ama Wang. Russian and Dutch Embassies 
at his court. Adopted European astronomical system. Instituted 
the Grand Council. 

1 66 1 Kanghi K'an Hsi, a child. Four of the best generals governed 
well as regents for a time. He became a wise and great ruler, con- 
solidated and completed the Manchu conquest. Treated Catholic 
priests with kindness, and availed himself of their scientific know- 
ledge. Patron of learning. Died 1722. 
Pigtails, in vogue among the Manchus, were enforced on the Chinese 

by them. Vigorously resisted at first in Southern China, but eventually 

universally adopted. Manchus adopted Chinese language, and became as 

proud of the traditions and literature of the past Dyns. as the Chinese 

themselves. 

LITERATURE. P'u Sung-ling (born 1622), scholar and writer of 
stories. Much admired by the Chinese. Four great works were published 
under the personal supervision of Emperor Kanghi: (I) Encyclopaedia in 



230 SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. [chap, xxxi 

no thick volumes. (II) Encyclopaedia in 450 volumes. (Ill) Enlarged 
and improved Herbarium. (IV) Complete edition of important philo- 
sophical writings of Chu Hsi (Sung Dyn.) in 66 volumes. He also gave 
his name to the great lexicon of the Chinese language. Individual 
distinction in literature small. Lan Ting- Yuan, a judge, twenty small 
volumes of essays. Ch'en Hung-mou, State papers and commentator on 
classics. 

JAPAN (Tokugawa period) 

Six emperors possessing merely a semblance of power. The Shoguns 
possessed the real power. 
1603 Iyeyasu Tokugawa assumed the title of Shogun, which remained 

in his family till 1868. Probably the greatest statesman of Japan. 

Moved the government from Kioto to Yedo (Tokio). Consolidated 

the feudal system. 
1605 Joined his son Hidetada with him in the rule. 
161 1 Discovered a plot of native Christians to revolt. 
1 6 14 Published an edict against the Christians, who numbered nearly two 

millions. Barbarous persecutions and tortures followed till 1637. 

A wave of Chinese influence in Japan during his reign. 
161 6 Hidetada succeeded. 

1623 Iyemitsu. Able ruler. Carried out the feudal policy of his grand- 
father, Iyeyasu. 

1624 Period of Isolation began. Admission of foreigners forbidden, 
except the Chinese refugees from Tartar rule and the Dutch at 
Nagasaki, which remained the one open port; no Japanese allowed 
to leave. 

1630 Empress Tenno occupied the throne. 

1637 Revolt of Christians quelled with a cruel massacre. 

1 65 1 Iyetsuna succeeded. 

1680 Tsunayoshi. Period of peaceful prosperity and luxury. Patron of 

the celebrated Dutch doctor, Kaempfer, who visited Japan. 
1 688- 1 704 The period of Genroku, when the life of the people at Yedo 

was a sort of carnival of amusement, luxury, and magnificence. 

ART. Tokugawa era considered as the golden period of bronze 
casting and metal chiselling, though no great works like the colossal 
Buddhas of Nara and Kamakura were executed. Great bell of Kioto in 
monastery at Cheonin cast 1633. Beautiful bronze work for the mausoleum 
of the Tokugawa in Yedo and Nikko and shrines throughout the Empire. 
An edict required every house to possess a bronze Buddha. Towards the 
middle of the century a new departure, parlour bronzes, objects for use 
in private houses. Fine inlay for swords. The Goto school of metal- 
workers founded in the fifteenth century by Yojo reached its highest level 
in the days of Genroku. It branched into three divisions known as the 
Yokoy a, the N ara, and the H am an o . End of the century called the golden 
age of lacquer work and fine ceramics. Motives for carved Netsuke ex- 



chap, xxxi] SEVENTEENTH CENTURY A.D. 231 

tended beyond religious subjects to all kinds of natural objects, and history, 
and life of the people. 

Koyetsu (b. 1558, d. 1643) and his family, the Homsami, experts in 
all that related to sword furniture. Koyetsu was also a famous lacquerer 
and master of caligraphy, an adept of the " tea ceremony " and of land- 
scape gardening, also a painter of flowers and makimonos. Student of 
the Zen doctrine. 

PAINTING. Pictorial style rose, the "Ukiyoye" or popular school. 
Religious painting passed away. 
1 5 73-1 635 Kano Sanraku, pupil of Yeitoku, helped to inaugurate the 

Ukiyoye school of genre or popular life style. 
1 5 78- 1 650 Matabei. Original strong style, Ukiyoye Matabei = genre or 

popular life style, and pictures of the passing world school. 

Katsushigi Gambei, his son. Koreshige, his grandson. 
1589-1651 Sansetsu, pupil of Kano Sanraku. 

Tanugu, Naonobu, Yasunobu, three court painters of Iyeyasu. 

Tsunenobu, follower of Sesshiu. 
161 7-91 Mitsuoke. Often used Chinese themes. 
1625-94 Kano Toun. 
1631-1705 Sumeyoshi Jokei. 
B. 1 63 1 Sotatsu. Flowers and Makimonos. 
1646-1710 Tosa Mitsunari. Fan mounts. 
1 661-17 16 Korin, son of Soken. Branch of the Tosa school called 

Sumiyoshi. Lived in the period of luxury and magnificence. 

Kenzen, son of Soken. 
D. 1694 Heshikana Maronobu. Picture books, the beginning of 

colour prints. 

Yamato Emosaku learnt the European method of oil painting 

from the Dutch. A convert to Christianity; his painting, as well as 

his courage, saved him from persecution. Many Chinese refugees, 

painters as well as scholars, who refused the Tartar rule, settled in 

Nagasaki, the one open port of Japan, and working there the 

Japanese artists flocked to learn from them. 

LITERATURE. The Yedo period. Yedo increased in prosperity 
and learning. A wide range of subjects, philosophy (Confucian pre- 
dominating over Buddhistic), historical, children's stories, novels, poetry. 
Popular drama. The regular theatre established, distinguished from 
the lyrical " No " drama. Chinese language and literature taught in the 
prosperous university. Medical and scientific advance not co-ordinate with 
the progress of art. 

Iyeyasu. A patron of art and literature, and a student of Chinese 
classics. Caused the books of Confucius to be published, and made 
education an essential. He left behind him a document called "Legacy 
of Iyeyasu," consisting of one hundred chapters of moral maxims and 
reflections, political, legal, and personal. 



APPENDICES 



I. 


Table of Notable Dates. 


XIX. 


Genealogy of the Julian Emper- 


II. 


Berlin System of Egyptian dating. 




ors. 


III. 


Periods of Egyptian History. 


XX. 


Christian Mosaics in Rome, Ra- 


IV. 


Crete (method of dating). 




venna, etc. 


V. 


Periods of Babylonian History. 


XXI. 


Descendants of Charles the 


VI. 


Epochs in Assyrian History. 




Great. 


VII. 


Names of the early Chaldean 


XXII. 


Matilda, Countess of Tuscany. 




States. 


XXIII. 


Hohenstaufen family (origin of). 


VIII. 


Nine Cities of Troy. 


XXIV. 


Crusades. 


IX. 


Indian Religious Periods. 


XXV. 


Foundation of Monastic orders. 


X. 


Indian Art Periods. 


XXVI. 


Roman Artists (sculptors and 


XI. 


Periods of Greek Sculpture. 




church decorators). 


XII. 


Greek Vases. 


XXVII. 


The seven Electors. 


XIII. 


Greek Painting. 


XXVIII. 


The Medici family. 


XIV. 


Hermetic and Gnostic Litera- 


XXIX. 


Periods of Chinese and Japanese 




ture. 




Art. 


XV. 


Genealogy of Galla Placidia. 


XXX. 


Five Schools of Japanese Paint- 


XVI. 


Genealogy of the Vandal Kings. 




ing. 


XVII. 


Ravenna, the three periods. 


XXXI. 


English Architecture. 


CVIII. 


Four periods of Byzantine Art. 


XXXII. 


French Gothic Architecture. 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX I 

Useful comparative Table of some notable dates published by Petrie in 
1907 in the Harmsworth " History of the World," differing slightly from 
the foregoing tables. 



B.C. 

8000 



70OO 

580O 
5500 

4700 



EGYPT 

Continuous civilization of 
prehistoric age began. Se- 
quence dating 30. 
Asiatic invasion. Sequence 
dating 40. 

Invasion of Dynastic race. 
Mena rules all Egypt. Se- 
quence dating 80. 
Khufu builds great pyramid. 



4000 Invasion from the north. 

3400 Middle kingdom (1 2th Dyn.). 

2500 Hyksos invasion (15th Dyn.). 

2250 Second Hyksos movement. 

1580 New kingdom (18th Dyn.). 

1380 Tel-el- Amarna letters. 

701 Taharqa (Tirhakah). 
570-526 Aahmes (Amasis). 



b.c. BABYLONIA 

Before 6000 Susa founded. 



5000 


Ea founds Eridu and civil- 




izes the land. 


4700 


Earliest monuments of kings 


4500 


Urnina. 


3800 


Sargon and Naramsin, Se- 




mitic rule. 


33°° 


Gudea, 


2280 


Elamites conquer Babylonia 


2129 


Hammurabi. 


1572 


Kassite Dyn. 


1380 


Burnaburiash. 


690 


Sennacherib. 



556-538 Narbonaid, fall of Babylon. 



APPENDIX II 

The Berlin system of dating the Egyptian dynasties previously to the end 
of the 17th Dyn., after which all the datings agree (according to 
Breasted's " History of Egypt "). 



Dyns. I-II. 


3400-2980 


B.C. 


Dyns. VII-VIII. 


2475- 2 445 B -c 


„ III. 


2980-2900 




IX-X. 


2445-2160 


„ IV. 


2900-2750 




XL 


2160-2000 


„ v. 


2750-2625 




XII. 


2000-1788 


„ VI. 


2625-2475 




„ XIII-XVIL 


1788-1580 



It is noticeable that this system allows only 208 years for the five 
dynasties, 13th to 17 th (inclusive). 



23s 



236 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX III 
Periods into which Egyptian history is usually divided 



Prehistoric. Dyn. 0. 
Archaic. Dyns. I to III. 
Old kingdom. Dyns. IV to XI. 
Middle kingdom. Dyns. XII to 
XVII. 



New kingdom. Dyns. XVIII to 
XX. 

Late kingdom. Dyns. XXI to Per- 
sian rule. 



APPENDIX IV 

The chronology of Crete is at present fluid. The method of dating 
adopted by Evans is shown in the following tables. It is divided into 
nine Minoan periods, which are fixed according to points of contact 
with Egypt. 



Early Minoan 1 contemporary with 
Dyn. I of Egypt. 

Middle Minoan 2 contemporary 
with Dyn. XII of Egypt. 

Late Minoan 3 contemporary with 
Dyn. XVIII of Egypt. 

The details of the nine Minoan Periods are distributed in the chapters 
according to Petrie's system of Egyptian Chronology. (See Introduction, 
p. xii). 



Early Minoan, 3 periods, 1, 2, 3. 
Middle Minoan, 3 periods, 1, 2, 3. 
Late Minoan, 3 periods, 1, 2, 3. 



APPENDIX V 

Babylonian history after the Sumerian period may be divided 
into three Periods 

About 3800 b.c. The Semite period, when Babylonian influence was 

very strong. 
C. 2000 The Kassite period. 
C. 750 The Anzanite period, to the Persian conquest. 



APPENDICES 



237 



APPENDIX VI 

Three cities, representing three Epochs in Assyrian history 

2300 to 900 B.C. Ashur. The Early Empire. Modern name, Kalat 

Shurgah. 
900 to 721 B.C. Calah. The Middle Empire. Modern name, Nimroud. 
721 to 625 B.C. Nineveh. The Sargonite Dyn. Modern name, Kou- 

yunjik. 



APPENDIX VII 
Names of the early Chaldean States (Babylonia) 



(1) Kish, 

(2) Lagash = Shirpurla = Tello. 

(3) Sumar. 

(4) Agade. 

(5) Ur. 



(6) Isin. 

(7) Larsa \ 

(8) Sippar/ 

(9) Erech. 



both centres 
worship. 



of sun- 



APPENDIX VIII 

Chronology of the nine cities of Troy as estimated by Dorpfeld 

C. 3000 to 2500 I. Lowest primitive settlements; wall of small quarry 

stones and clay. Primitive finds. 
2500 to 2000 II. Prehistoric fortress; strong walls and large brick 

buildings, thrice destroyed and rebuilt. Monochrome pottery, Buc- 

chero, and a piece of white jade peculiar to China, and many objects 

of bronze, silver, and gold. 
2000 to 1500 III. IV. V. Three prehistoric village settlements built 

above the ruins of the second city. Houses of small stones and brick. 

Early Trojan pottery. 
1500 to 1000 VI. The Homeric Pergamos of Troy. Fortress of the 

Mycenaean age ; mighty circuit wall with great tower. Stately houses 

of well dressed stone. Advanced monochrome pottery of local fabric 

and imported Mycenaean vases. 
1000 to Christian Era. VII. VIII. Two village settlements on Hellenic ruins 

of sixth city. Local monochrome pottery, and nearly every variety of 

Greek ceramics. 
Beginning of Christian Era to 500 a.d. IX. Acropolis of Roman Ilium, with 

famous Temple of Athena. Fine marble buildings. Roman pottery. 

Marble inscriptions. 



2 3 8 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX IX 



Indian Religious Periods. (Also used as historical divisions) 



1 500-1000 b.c. Vedic. 
1000- 550 Brahmin. 

550- 150 Early Buddhist. 

150 B.c-300 a.d. Later Buddhist. 



300- 650 a.d. Early Hindu. 

650-1200 Later Hindu. 

1200-1525 Early Mohammedai 
1525-1803 Later Mohammedan. 



APPENDIX X 

Indian art divided into three periods 

I. Brahminical period from the origins of Aryan civilization to nearly 

250 B.C. 
II. Buddhist period from 250 B.C. to seventh century a.d. 
III. Later Brahminical period from seventh century a.d. to the Arab 

Conquest. 

APPENDIX XI 



Periods of Greek Sculpture 

Seven divisions convenient for the study of the subject 

About 

Archaic, early external influences, decorative. 

Archaic, rising and developing. 

Transition. 

Maturity. 

Second Transition. 






I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 
VI. 

VII. 



750-600 B.C. 

600-500 B.C. 
500-460 B.C. 
460-320 B.C. 
320-290 B.C. 
290 B.C, 

Rhodes. 

IOO-30O A.D 



100 a.d. Hellenistic, including the schools of Pergamos and 
Graeco-Roman. 



APPENDIX XII 
Greek Vases 

Arranged in eight groups 

(1) Pre-Mycenaean and Mycenaean vases. 

(2) 900-700 b.c. Geometric, with primitive men and animals. Shows 

close analogies to the pottery and bronze work of the North of 
Europe, and at such sites as Hallstadt. 



APPENDICES 239 



(3) 7°°-55° Early black-figured. Many with Oriental motives and 

mythological groups and types. Active potteries in Ionian cities of 
Asia Minor, Miletus, Samos, and Cameirus in Rhodes. In Greek 
proper, Corinth, Calchis, and Athens surpassed the other cities. 

(4) 550-480 Later black-figured (Attic). Signed by artists. Athens 

the first rank in these. Figures, silhouette work of black, details white 
and red, handles and feet black. Many are interesting representations 
of some of the fundamental artistic principles of Greece. 

(5) 5 2 5-4 60 Red-figured (Attic). Severe. The best period. Formality 

of design reduced, and path to greater freedom opened. Good lines 
and free handling. Artists, Euphronius, Brygus, Duris. The kylix their 
favourite form. 

(6) 460-400 Red-figured (Attic). Free. Showing influence of great Greek 

painters, Polygnotus, Micon, Panaenus. More freedom from conven- 
tion, but leading to the decadence of the art of vase painting. 

(7) Fifth century. White ground vases, resembled fresco painting. 

Free designs. Outlines filled with washes of red, yellow, blue, and 
brown. The technique which was employed by Euphronius and Duris 
for kylices and lekythi, later used principally for the funereal 
lekythi of Athens. 
(8)400-300 Red-figured late. Decadent, large and elaborate. Mostly 
made in Lower Italy, especially at Tarentum, but important for their 
subjects, especially in relation to the dramas of Euripides. 



APPENDIX XIII 

Greek Painting 

The history of Greek Painting may be divided into five periods. 
I. The Primitive, before 500 b.c. (Mycenae and Tiryns). 
II. The Polygnotan, fifth century B.C., from Polygnotus to the time 
of the Peloponnesian War. 
III. The Transition, about the last quarter of the fifth century B.C. 
IV. The Fourth Century b.c, the golden period of Apelles. 
V. The Hellenistic period. 

The great period of Greek painting ended with Apelles, but as late as the 
Roman Empire it retained a high degree of technical skill. Timomachus 
of Byzantium worked in the age of Julius Caesar or earlier; mythological 
pictures and portraits. Ludius, in the time of Augustus, decorative work. 

The three methods employed: 

I. Fresco (on wet plaster). 

II. Tempera, like the mediaeval with yolk of egg as the medium. 
III. Encaustic. Colours mixed with melted wax. 



240 APPENDICES 

APPENDIX XIV 
Hermetic and Gnostic Literature b.c. 

Extracted from Petrie's " Personal Religion in Egypt " 

Kore Rosmos. Earliest dated Hermetic writing. 
Definitions of Asklepios. 
Perfect Sermon (containing first Asceticism). 
About the Common Mind (Logos = human reason). 
Secret Sermon (Logos doctrine developed). 
Shepherd of Men (Logos = Divine principle). 
Ecclesiasticus. 
Philon's writings. 

APPENDIX XV 
Genealogy of Galla Placidia 

Theodosius,=pGalla, 



510 


B.C. 


35° 




34o 




332 




190- 


170 


40 A.D. 



d. 395 A.D. 



r~ 



d. 394 A.D. 



~\ 



Honorius, Em- Galla Placidia,=(i) Athaulf. 

peror, d. 423. d. 450. 

=p(2) CONSTANTIUS, 

j the General. 
Honoria. Valentinian III^Eudoxia. (Her secondhus- 



Emperor, d. 455 



band was Maximus, Em- 
peror for two months. ) 



Placidia. =Olybrius. Eudocia.=Hunneric, son 

of Genseric 

Galla Placidia taken prisoner by Alaric the Goth when she was 
twenty-one, and married at Narbonne to Athaulf, the Gothic king, brother- 
in-law and successor of Alaric. Athaulf was assassinated. She was taken 
prisoner by the murderer, and sent back by King Wallia to Ravenna to 
her brother Honorius, who forced her to marry Constantius. She was after- 
wards banished by Honorius, but returned with an army and set Valentinian, 
her son, on the throne. 

Eudoxia invited Genseric to Rome in order to avenge herself on 
Maximus when she learnt that Maximus (her second husband) had 
murdered Valentinian (her first husband). 



APPENDICES 241 



APPENDIX XVI 

Genealogy of the Vandal Kings, a.d. 427-534 

Genseric. 



p -*— I -I 

HUNNERIC.=j=EUDOCIA. GENZO. THEODORIC. 

I I 



I I 1 1 

Helderic (King), Gunthamund (King), Thrasamund (King), Gelaris. 
523-530. 484-496. 496-523- 

1 1 1 

Geilamir (King), Ammalas. Izazo. 

530-534- 



APPENDIX XVII 

Ravenna 

Three important periods in the history of her art and architecture, from 
the beginning of the fifth century, when Honorius transferred the seat 
of Imperial government from Rome to Ravenna. 

I. 401-476 Including Honorius, Galla Placidia, Valentinian III. 
II. 476-493 Including Odoacer, Theodoric, and other Gothic kings. 
III. 527-^r. 578 Including reigns of Justinian and Justin II, after whose 
time the fortunes of the city declined. 



APPENDIX XVIII 

Four Periods of Byzantine Art 

I. From the fourth century a.d. to the end of the sixth century. The 
Golden Age during the time of Justinian. It influenced all con- 
temporary Christian art. 
II. Phase of stagnation owing to Iconoclastic controversy from726to842. 

III. Renaissance at the end of the ninth century to the sack of Con- 
stantinople, 1204. The second Golden Period rose at the beginning 
of the tenth century. 

IV. From the close of the thirteenth century to the fall of the Empire in 
1397, when Constantinople was taken by the Turks. 



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APPENDICES 243 



APPENDIX XX 
Christian Mosaics 

MOSAICS IN ROME 

Nave and triumphal arch of Sta Maria Maggiore attributed by Richter 
to the second century, other authorities say the fifth century. 
4th cent. Sta Costanza. Earliest known Christian series, 323-361. 

Sta Pudenziana. Much restored, original traits preserved, 390. 

Lateran Baptistery. Scroll, 352-366 under Pope Liberius. 
5th cent. Sta Maria Maggiore. Arch, 432-440 under Sixtus III. 

Sta Sabina. Inscription in mosaic and two figures. 
End of 5th cent. Classical art qualities decreasing. Byzantine rising. 
6th cent. SS. Cosimo and Damiano, classical element still holding, 526- 

530. S. Lorenzo Fuori, ascetic Christ face, 579-590. 
7th cent. Sta Agnese Fuori, boundary line between earliest and later 

styles, 625-638. 

Lateran Baptistery. Chapel of St. Venantius, Saints and 

costumes of period, 640-649. 

Sta SX(Gieek form \ Bj?antine influence, and lastflourish- 
nfhWinV* f mg ray of the classic. Under Pope 

01 messing;. Paschal I, 817-824. 

Sta Maria in Domnica. J 

SS. Nereo and Achilleo, c. 800, Leo. III. 

S. Marco, 828. Gregory IV. 
nth and 12th cent. Greek monastery at Grottaferrata, near Rome. 
12th cent. Sta Francesca Romana. 

S. Clemente, 1099-1118. 

Sta Maria in Trastavere. Facade, dome, and apse, 1140. 
13th cent. Sta Maria in Trastavere. Cavallini series in apse, 1291. 

Sta Maria Maggiore. Apse. Torriti (scroll earlier), 1295. 
15th cent. S. Croce in Gerusalemme, said to be by Peruzzi. 

RAVENNA MOSAICS 

5th cent. Baptistery (orthodox), 425-430, according to the Liber Pon- 

tificalis. 

Galla Placidia tomb, c. 440. 

Archiepiscopal Palace. 
6th cent. S. Apollinare Nuovo, 504-560. 

S. Vitale. 547 Apse. 

Baptistery (Arian), c. 500. 
6th and 7th cent. S. Apollinare in Classe. 

VENETIAN MOSAICS 

The mosaics of S. Marco range from the eleventh to the eighteenth 
century. 



244 



APPENDICES 



The mosaics of Torcello, eleventh and twelfth centuries, have also been 
attributed to the seventh and eleventh centuries. 

The mosaics of S. Donato Murano c. twelfth century. 



5 th cent. 
5th cent. 



NAPLES 
Baptistery, S. Restituta. 



CAPUA 

5th cent. Church. 



FLORENCE 
13th cent. Baptistery. 



MILAN 
S. Lorenzo and S. Am 
brogio. 

SICILIAN MOSAICS 
nth and 12th cent. The Martorana, Palermo. 
1 2th cent. Cappella Palatina, Palermo, built by Roger II. 

Cefalu, Duomo. 

Monreale, Duomo. 

Palace of La Ziza, Palermo (secular). 

CONSTANTINOPLE 
6th cent. Church of the Apostles. Great mosaic now lost. 
6th and 9th cent. S. Sophia, covered with whitewash. 
8th cent. S. Irene, obscured by whitewash. 
14th cent. Kahrie Djami, Monastery church. 
Mosque of Fetiye Djami. 
(Secular.) The Imperial palaces were richly decorated with mosaics; the 
Kainourgion, erected by Basil I (867), was specially fine. 

SALONICA 
5th cent. Church of S. George : has also been assigned to the fourth 

century. 
6th cent. Church of S. Demetrius. 

Church of Hagia Paraskive, now the mosque of Eski Djouma. 
9th, 10th, and nth cent. Church of S. Sophia. Also assigned to the eighth 
century. 

GREECE 
6th cent. St. Luke's Church, Pho- 

cis. 
nth cent. Monastery church, 
Daphne. 



10th and following cent. Monas- 
teries on Mount Athos. 

13th and 14th cent. Church at 
Arta. 



VARIOUS PLACES 



6th cent. Parenzo Istria. 

5th or 6th cent. Churches at Kite 
and Lithankome, Cy- 
prus. 

6th or 7 th cent. Monastery of S. 
Catherine, Mount Sinai. 

7thand nth cent. Mosque of Omar, 
Jerusalem. 

8th, 9th, and 10th cent. Church at 
Nicaea. 



9th cent. GermignydesPres, about 
the time of Pope Pas- 
chal I. 

nth cent. Cathedral at Trieste. 

S. Sophia, Kieff (Russia). 

1 2th cent. Mosque of El Aksar, 
Jerusalem. 

Church of the Nativity, 
Bethlehem. 



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246 APPENDICES 

APPENDIX XXII 
Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, b. 1046, d. 1115 

Boniface of Tuscany=j=BEATRiCE (dau. of = Godfrey of=j= 



(most powerful prince 
of his time, d. 1052). 



Duke of Lorraine). Lorraine. 



1 1 1 

(2) Guelf=MATILDA,=(i) Godfrey the Frederick (after- Beatrice. 
V, b. 1072. b. 1046. Hunchback, wards Pope Stephen 

son of her step- IX). 

father, d. 1076. 1 

Godfrey the Hunchback, married 
Matilda, did not share her Papal 
politics, remained under the Emperor. 



APPENDIX XXIII 

Origin of the Hohenstaufen Family 

Agnes, dau. of Emperor Henry IV.^Frederick of Biiren Hohenstaufen. 

I 

r - 1 - -1 

Frederick. Conrad III, Emperor, 



Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, ii 52-1 190. 

I 
Emperor Henry VI, 1190-1197. 

I 
Emperor Frederick II, 1212-1250. 

I 
Conrad IV, 1250-1254. 



APPENDIX XXIV 
The Crusades 



1137-1152. 



1. 


1095-1099 


II. 
III. 


1147-1150 

1188-1192 


IV. 


1 200-1 204 


V. 


1217-1220 


VI. 
VII. 


1248-1254 
1270-1271 



Rose under Urban II. Jerusalem taken, the Latin rule 

founded there under Godfrey of Bouillon. 

Started by St. Bernard to win back Edessa. Defeated. 

To win back Jerusalem, which had been lost in 1187. 

Truce with Saladin in 1192. 

Constantinople taken during the Crusade, Baldwin set 

up there as Latin Emperor. See p. 145. 

Started under John de Brienne. Unsuccessful. In 1229 

Frederick II, his son-in-law, concluded a ten years' truce 

with the Sultan, by which the Christians regained Bethle 

hem, Nazareth, and Jerusalem. 

St. Louis of France in Egypt and Palestine. 

St. Louis of France against Tunis. Tripoli fell to the 

Turks in 1289. Acre surrendered to them in 129 1. The 

crusading impulse died out. 






APPENDICES 247 



APPENDIX XXV 

Dates of foundation of some of the great Christian Monastic 

Orders 

Christian Monasticism began among the Anchorites of the The- 

baid or desert. 
357 Order of St. Basil in the East. 
529 Benedictine Order at Monte Cassino, spread over the whole of 

Europe. 
929 Cluniac Order (Benedictine) at Cluny, near Macon, by St. Berno, 
2,000 monasteries in the twelfth century. 

1084 Certosan (Carthusian) Order founded by St. Bruno at Grande 
Chartreuse, near Grenoble. 

1098 Cistercian Order founded by St. Robert in the forest of Citeaux, 
in Burgundy, and after 11 13 received fresh impulse from St. Ber- 
nard at Clairvaux in Aube. 

1 1 13 Order of Knights Hospitallers of St. John founded at 
Jerusalem to tend the sick in the Holy Land, and to rescue Christian 
prisoners from the Mussulmans. They took Rhodes in 13 10, and 
settled there, and were called Knights of Rhodes. After the 
Turks took Rhodes in 1522, the Knights Hospitallers settled in 
Malta, and were called Knights of Malta. 

1 1 18 Order of Knights Templars founded at Jerusalem to protect 
the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and the pilgrims. 

1191 TheTeutonic Orderand the Spanish Orders ofCalatrava(i 158), 
and Alcantara (1156), and St. James of Compostela (1175). 

1 140 Trappists founded by Rotrou, Count of Perche, at La Trappe, 
France. 

1208 Franciscans founded by St. Francis of Assisi. 

1209 Carmelites founded by Albert, titular Patriarch of Jerusalem, 
at Mount Carmel. 

12 1 2 Nuns of St. Clare (Poor Clares), Franciscans at Assisi, founded 

by Chiara Scifi. 
1215 Dominicans founded by St. Dominic. 
1223 Servites founded by Bonfiglio Monaldi at Florence, offshoot 

of the rule of St. Augustine. 
1 25 1 Austin Friars founded by Innocent IV at Marseilles. 
1525 Capuchins, a reformed Franciscan order, founded by Matteo 

di Bassi at Pisa. 
1534 Jesuits founded by Ignatius Loyola at Montmartre, Paris. 
1609 English Institute of Blessed Virgin Mary founded by 

Mary Ward at St. Omer, France. 
1686 Ladies of St. Cyr founded by Mme de Maintenon and 

Louis XIV at Versailles. 
A great many orders of nuns during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries. The above list of orders of monks and nuns contains only the 
most important of the many hundreds of orders founded from the fourth 
to the seventeenth century. 



248 APPENDICES 

APPENDIX XXVI 

Roman Artists (Sculpture and Church Decoration) 

Family School of Paulus began, under Paschal II, to reconstruct 
and redecorate churches after the Guiscard fire, combining the work of 
architects, sculptors, decorators, and mosaicists. 

PAULUS (worked in Vatican Basilica, Sta 
Maria in Cosmedin, Quattro Coronati, i ioo- 
1122, and, with his 4 sons, in S. Lorenzo 
Fuori, ciborium, pulpit, etc., to 1 147). 



( i 1 1 

JOHANNES. PETRUS. ANGELUS. SASSO. 

NICOLAUS. 

The sons of Paulus continued working at Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, 
S. Marco, and SS. Cosmo e Damiano, etc., to 1154. 

Nicolaus greatly improved art of decorative mosaics; worked with 
Jacobus di Laurentio, and also Petrus Vassallectus to c. 1180. He also 
executed the portico of the Lateran Basilica. 

Family School of Rainerius (or Ranucius) began early in the 
twelfth century to decorate churches in Rome, and largely in the provinces, 
at Corneto and Ponzano. 

RAINERIUS. 



Nicolaus (Rome and Petrus (Rome and 

Corneto, 1143). Corneto, 1143). 



1 1 

Johannes I (Corneto, Guitto (Corneto, 

1 166, and Ponzano). 1 166, and Ponzano). 

I 
Johannes II (Cor- 
neto Ambone 1 209). 

Family School of Laurentius (commonly called the " Cosmati " 

Family) began about the middle of the twelfth century decorating churches 
in Rome and the immediate neighbourhood. 

LAURENTIUS or LORENZO (worked with his son at St. Peter's 
Basilica, Sta Maria in Ara Coeli, Segni Cathedral, Civita Cas- 
tellana, Fallieri, Subiaco Monastery, etc., and died before 1205). 

I 
Jacobus I (worked with Nicolaus di Angelo, and continued the 
improvements in decorative mosaics; executed nineteen colonnettes 
in S. Bartolommeo, Rome, Pavement of S. Ambrogio in Pescheria, 
worked at Civita Castellana, Subiaco cloister, etc., to 1209, and 
subsequently worked with his son. He retired or died c. 1220). 

I 
Cosmas (SS. Giovanni e Paolo, c. 1220). 

I 

1 i 

Lucas. Jacobus II. 



APPENDICES 249 



Cosmas and his sons completed the cloisters at Subiaco, also executed 
the choir seats at Civita Castellana, and decorated Anagni Cathedral, etc., 
by c. 1235. 

Family School of Vassallectus worked principally in Rome, com- 
mencing in the latter part of the twelfth century. 

PETRUS VASSALLECTUS I (worked with Nicolaus di Angelo on 
Paschal candlestick at S. Paolo Fuori, 11 70; worked at the Vatican 
and executed the lion at SS. Apostoli, and the Episcopal throne at 
Sta Croce in Gerusalemme, and worked at Segni Cathedral 1186). 

Vassallectus II. 

Petrus and his son together commenced the Lateran cloisters 1220; 
Vassallectus II continued on them to 1230, Anagni Cathedral throne and 
candlestick, Cathedral at Civita Lavinia, Basilica and Porch of S. Lorenzo 
Fuori, etc., until c. 1270. 

Family School of Cosmatus 

COSMATUS (is known at present only by the Chapel 
of the Sancta Sanctorum in Rome, executed 1277-1278). 

Jacobus. Petrus. Johannes (commonly called Deodatus. 

Giovanni Cosmati). 

The speciality of Johannes (or Giovanni) was sepulchral monuments, 
including decorative mosaics and frescoes; latest date 1301. 

Deodatus had charge of the Great Jubilee artistic work at the Lateran 
under Boniface VIII in 1300. Executed ciborium in Sta Maria in 
Cosmedin, etc. He emigrated from Rome on departure of Popes to 
Avignon. 



APPENDIX XXVII 

The Seven Electors 

Created by "The Golden Bull" of the Emperor Charles IV, a.d. 1356 

Four Secular 



Three Ecclesiastical 

Archbishop of Mainz. 
,, Koln. 

,, Trier. 



King of Bohemia. 
Count Palatine of the Rhine. 
Margrave of Brandenburg. 
Duke of Saxony. 



Their office to elect the kings of Rome and emperors; elections to be 
held at Frankfort, and the elected prince to be crowned at Aachen, and 
to hold his first diet at Nuremberg. 



25° 



APPENDICES 



APPENDIX XXVIII 
The Medici Family (principal members) 
Giovanni d'Averardo, 1360- 1429. 

i 



Cosimo (Pater Patriae), =j=Contessa Bardi. 
1389-1464. 



PlERO, I4l6-I469.=f<LuCRETIA TORNABUONI. 



Lorenzo (II Magnifico),=j=CLARiCE Orsini. 
1449- 1492. 



Piero (expelled)=f=ALFONSiNA Giovanni 
1495. I Orsini. (Pope Leo X). 



Lorenzo, 1395- 1440. 



Later Dukes of Tuscany, and 
Maria who married Henry 
IV of France, descended 
from him. 



Giuliano, mur- 
dered in 1478. 



GlULio (illegitimate). 
(Pope Clement VII.) 



Lorenzo, ^Madeleine de la 



1492-15 19. 



Tour d'Auvergne. 



Catherine de Medici. =Henry II of France. 



APPENDIX XXIX 
Chinese and Japanese Art divided into Periods 



Periods of Chinese painting named 
according to the Dyns. 

Early period before the T'ang Dyn. 
a.d. 618-905 T'ang Dyn. 
905-960 The five Dyns. 
960-1280 Sung Dyn. 
1280-1368 Yuan Dyn. 
1 368-1 644 Ming Dyn. 
1644-Present day. Ch'ing Dyn. 



Periods of Japanese painting 



a.d. 709-784 
794-1100 

1100-1335 

1335-1573 
1573-1603 
1603-1868 



Nara period. 
Heian or Kyoto 

period. 
Kamakura period. 
Ashikaga period. 
Momoyama period. 
Tokugawa or Yeda 

period. 



APPENDICES 251 

APPENDIX XXX 
Five Schools of Japanese Painting 

9th cent. a.d. Kose School founded by Kose Kanaoka. 

nth cent. Takuma School founded by Takuma Tamenari, a branch of 
the Kose. 

nth cent. Kasuga School, founded by Kasuga Motomitsu. 

1 3th cent. Tosa School founded by Tosa Tsunetaka. 

14th cent. So-gen School, renaissance, return to Chinese models. Founded 
by Shiubun, a follower of Josetsu (a Chinese painter who 
settled in Japan). 

1 5th cent. Kano School founded by Masanobu. 

17th cent. The Ukiyoye or Popular School rose. Founded principally by 
Matabei, though some work had been done by other artists in 
this style of the " Passing World " School. The great colour 
print school developed out of the Ukiyoye School. 



APPENDIX XXXI 

Approximate Dating of Periods of English Architecture 

(Ecclesiastical) 
Cent. 

VI to XI Anglo-Saxon. Influenced by Italian Lombardic. 
XI and XII Norman Lombardic, also called Anglo-Norman. End 
of the twelfth century transition to early English Gothic. 

XIII Early English Gothic (Lancet). End of the century tran- 
sition to Decorated Gothic. 

XIV Decorated Gothic. End of the century transition to Perpen- 
dicular. 

XV Perpendicular Gothic. End of the century passing into 
Tudor. 
XVI Renaissance style and Elizabethan domestic architecture. 



APPENDIX XXXII 

Approximate Dating of the Four Periods of French Gothic 

Architecture 

1 1 25-1 196 Primitive (Chartres). 

1 1 96-1 240 Lancet Gothic (Amiens). 

1 240-1 350 Radiating Gothic (Ste Chapelle). 

1 350-1 500 Flamboyant (Rouen, St. Ouen). 

The Renaissance came in from Italy during the fifteenth century. 



ART SUPPLEMENT 

Painters of Europe from the Thirteenth Century 



I. Italian, divided into schools. 
II. Flemish. do. 

III. German. do. 

IV. Dutch. 



V. French. 

VI. Spanish, divided into schools. 

VII. Portuguese. 

VIII. English. 



ART SUPPLEMENT 

PAINTERS OF EUROPE FROM THE THIRTEENTH 
CENTURY 

The names of the artists are arranged chronologically instead of alpha- 
betically to preserve and show their sequence, and, as far as possible, they 
are grouped into schools. Many of the dates relating to artists vary slightly 
according to different authorities. 

ITALIAN PAINTERS 



FLORENTINE SCHOOL 



Cimabue c. 1240 

Giotto 1276 

Bernardo Daddi 
Taddeo Gaddi c. 1300 

Orcagna 1308 

Giovanni da Milano 
Giottino 1326 

Agnolo Gaddi ^ J 333 

Spinello Aretino 1333 

Lorenzo di Bicci X ZS° 

Lorenzo di Bicci (son 

of above) J 373 

Lorenzo Monaco 1 37° 

Andrea da Firenze 0^. 1377 
Antonio Veneziano op. 1374 
Masolino ^1384 

Fra Angelico 1387 

Andrea del Castagno 1396 
Paolo Uccello 1397 

Domenico Veneziano 1400 
Masaccio 1401 

Fra Filippo Lippi 1406 

Neri di Bicci 141 9 

Benozzo Gozzoli 1420 

Lorenzo da Viterbo op. 1446-7 
Francesco Pesellino 1422 



D. 

1302 
1337 
i35o 
1366 
1368 
1370 

1356 
1396 
1410 
1427 

i45 2 
1425 



M35 
J455 
1457 
1475 
1461 
1428 
1469 
1491 
1498 



1457 



Baldovinetti 
Antonio Pollaiuolo 
Verrocchio 
Cosimo Rosselli 
Piero Pollaiuolo 
Botticelli 
Dom. Ghirlandaio 
Mainardi 

Leonardo da Vinci 
Filippino Lippi 
Lorenzo di Credi 
Piero di Cosimo 
Raffaellino del Garbo 
Granacci 
Albertinelli 
Michael Angelo Buon- 
arroti 
Fra Bartolommeo 
Franciabigio 
Raphael 

Ridolfo Ghirlandaio 
Andrea del Sarto 
Bandinelli 
Rosso Fiorentino 
Pontormo 
Bacchiacca 
Angelo Bronzino 
Daniele da Volterra 



B. 


D. 


1427 


1499 


1429 


1498 


J 435 


1488 


1437 


IS°7 


1443 


1496 


1446 


I5IO 


1449 


1494 




1513 


MS 2 


J 5i9 


1457 


i5°4 


1459 


1537 


1462 


1521 


1466 


1524 


1469 


J 543 


1474 


1517 


1474 


i5 6 4 


1475 


iSi7 


1482 


1525 


1483 


1520 


1483 


1561 


i486 


i53i 


1493 


1560 


1494 


iS4i 


1494 


1556 


1494 


1557 


1502 


1572 


i5°9 


1566 



255 



256 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



Giorgio Vasari 
Zucchero Federigo 
Cristofano Allori 
Cigoli 
Carlo Dolci 



SIENESE SCHOOL 

Duccio di Buonin- 
segna c. 

Simon e Martini 

Pietro Lorenzetti op. 

Ambrogio Loren- 
zetti op. 

Lippo Memmi 

Taddeo di Bartolo 

Domenico di Bartolo 

Sano di Pietro 

Lorenzo Vecchietta 

Matteo di Giovanni 

Benvenuto di Giovanni 

Francesco di Giorgio 

Neroccio da Landi 

Bernadino Fungai 

Pacchiarotto 

Girolamo del Pacchia 

Bazzi (Sodoma) c. 

Baldassare Peruzzi 

Beccafumi 



UMBRIAN SCHOOL 

Allegretto Nuzi 
Gentile da Fabriano 
Lorenzo di S. Severino 
Giovanni Boccatis op. 
Piero della Francesca 
Benedetto Bonfigli c. 
Niccolo da Foligno 
Melozzo da Forli 
Fiorenzo di Lorenzo 
Giovanni Santi (father 

of Raphael) 
Signorelli 
Ottaviano Nelli 
Bartolommeo Caporali 

fl. middle 15th cent. 



B. 


D. 


1512 


1574 


1560 


1609 


1577 


1621 


1559 


1613 


l6l6 

OOL 


1686 


1260 c 


• I 339 


1283? 


1344 


1 3°5 f 


.1348 


i3 2 3 c 


.1348 


c 


• I 357 


1362 


1422 


1400 


1449 


1406 


1481 


1412 


1480 


1435 


1495 


1436 


1518 


1439 


1502 


1447 


1500 


1460 


1516 


1474 


154° 


1477 c 


■IS35 


1477 


!549 


148 1 


!537 


1485 


!55i 


IOOL 
1308 


1385 


1360? 


1428 


1370 




!435 


1460 


1416 


1492 


1425 


1496 


143° 


1502 


1438 


1494 


1440 


1521 


1440? 


1494 


1441 


J 523 


after 


1444 





B. 


D. 


Perugino 


1446 


r 523 


Pinturicchio 


1454 


!5i3 


Timoteo Viti 


1467 


x 5 2 3 


Mezzastris 


op. 1468 




Raphael 


1483 


1520 


Eusebio di S. Giorg 


r io 1492 


!5 2 7 


Bernardino di Mariotto 


1 5 2 3 


Melanzio da Montefalco 




Sinibaldo Ibi 


#.1507- 


28 


Manni 


1493 


iS44 


Tiberio dAssisi 


op. 15 12- 


i8 


Lo Spagna 


t 


-.1528 


Alfani (Orazio) 


1510 


1582 



ROMAN SCHOOL 



Cavallini 

Filippo Rusetti, and his 
son and pupil, Nicolo 
di Marzo, 13th and 
14th cent. 

Raphael 

Giulio Romano 

Baroccio 

Pietro da Cortona 

Sassoferrato 

Maratta 



1259 1344 



1483 

1492? 

1528 

1596 
1605 
1625 



1520 
1546 
1612 
1669 
1685 
1713 



VENETIAN SCHOOL 

Nicolo Veneziano "1 

Lorenzo Veneziano I op. from 1370 



Jacobello del Fiore J 
Michele Giambono J 
Giovanni Alemannus 
Antonio Vivarini da 

Murano 
Jacopo Bellini 
Gentile Bellini 
Giovanni Bellini 
Crivelli 
Bartolommeo Vivarini 

da Murano op. 1450 1499 

Antonello da Messina c. 1444 c. 1493 
Lazzaro Sebastiani op. 1449 151 2 



to 1450 

1458 

1470 

op. 1430 1470 

1429? 1507 

1430? 1516 

c. 1435 c. 1493 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



257 



Jacopo di Bardi c, 

Bartolommeo Mon- 
tagna c. 

Bonsignori c. 

Vittore Carpaccio op. 

Rondinelli op. 

Cima 

Alvise Vivarini 

Pellegrino 

Bissolo 

Boccaccio Boccaccino 

Marco Basaiti c. 

Giorgione 

Titian 

Savoldo c. 

Pal ma Vecchio c. 

Cariani c. 

Lorenzo Lotto 
Pordenone 
Sebastiano del 

Piombo c. 

Bonifazio 

Giovanni Mansueti op. 
Catena op. 

Paris Bordone 
Marco Marziale op. 
Previtali op. 

Bartolommeo Veneto op 
Bonifazio Veronese op. c. 
Jacopo Bassano 
Tintoretto = Jacopo 

Robusti 
Buonconsiglio = Mar- 

escalco 
Girolamo S. Croce 
Bernardino Licinio op. 
Paolo Veronese (Caliari) 
Pal ma Giovane 
Tiepolo 
Canaletto 



B. D. 

1450 1516 



145° 
1453 
1478 
1480 
1460 
1461 

1465 

1464 

1467? 

1470 

1477 
1477 
1480 
1480 
1480 
1480 
1483 

1485 

1487. 
1470 

1495 
J 495 
1500 
1502 

•!5°5 
1510 
1510 



I 5 2 3 

!5!9 

1522 

1500 
f.1517 
!5°3 
iS47 
1528 

1525? 
1527 
1510 

1576 
1548 
1528 

1544 
1555 
1540 

1547 

1547 
1490 

iS3i 
i57o 

1525 

1555 
iS4o 
1592 



1518 1592 

after 1530 
1520 1541 

1544 
1588 
1628 
1770 
1768 



1520 
1528 

1544 
1696 
1697 



SCHOOL OF PADUA 

Guariento and Justus of Padua 
appear to have painted 1330-1370. 

Squarcione 1394 1474 

Schiavone op. c. 1440 



Andrea Mantegna 
Girolamo da Cre- 
mona 
Bono Ferrarese 



B. 

M3 1 



D. 

1506 



op. 1467 1483 



SCHOOL OF VERONA 



!33o !394 



Altichiero Altichieri = 

Altichiero da 

Zevio op. 

Jacopo degli Avanzi 
Pisanello = Vittore Pi- 

sano c. 

Stefano da Zivio c. 
Oriolo 

Domenico Morone 
Michele da Verona 
Liberale da Verona 
Francesco Caroto 
Francesco Morone 
Girolamo dai Libri 
Niccolo Giolfino 
Cavazzola = Morando 
Torbido c. 

Brusasorci 
Antonio Badele 
Paolo Farinati 
Battista Zelotti c. 



SCHOOL OF FERRARA AND 
BOLOGNA 

Cosimo Tura 
Ercole Roberti 
Francesco Cossa 
Marco Zoppo 
Francia 

Francesco Bianchi 
Lorenzo Costa 
Ercole Grandi 
Timoteo Viti 
Aspertini 

Mazzolino c 

Dosso Dossi = Lutero 
Garofalo = Tisi c 

Ortolano op 

Ludovico Carracci 



1385 


J455 


1393 


I45 1 


1442 c 


!5°3 




1525 


1451 


i53 6 


1470 


1546 


1473 


1529 


1474 


!55 6 


1476 


1555 


i486 


1522 


i486 c 


1546 


1494 


1567 


I5J7 


1560 


1522 


1606 


1532 


J 592 



c. 



143° 


J 495 


143° 


1496 


!435 


1480 


1440 


1498 


145° 


1517 


1457 


1510 


1460 


1535 


1465 


IS35 


1467 


!5 2 3 


1474 


1552 


1478 


1528 


1479 


i55i 


1481 


1559 


1512 


1525 


^55 


1619 



258 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



Agostino Carracci 
Annibale Carracci 
Guido Reni 
Francesco Albano 
Domenichino 
Guercino 
Franceschino 



B. D. 

1557 1601 

1560 1609 

1574 1642 

1578 1660 

1581 1641 

1591 1666 

1648 1729 



SCHOOL OF LOMBARDY 

Foppa c. 1427^.1502 

Butinone op. 1454 1507 

Zenale 1436 1526 

Borgognone 1450 1523 

Leonardo da Vinci 1452 15 19 

Solario c. 1460 15 15 

Bramantino c. 1460 1529 

Boltraffio 1467 15 16 

Ambrogio da Predis op. 1482 1506 

Bernardino deConti<?^. 1490 1522 

Gianpietrino op. 1492 1542 

Marco d' Oggiono 1470^ 1530 

Luini c. 1475 J 53 2 

Cesare da Cesto 1477 1523 

Bazzi = Sodoma 1477 1549 

The Piazza of Lodi op. till 1529 
Cesare Magni op. c. 1525 

Ercole Procaccini 1520 1590 

Caravaggio 1569 1609 

Ribera = Spagnoletto 1588 1656 



SCHOOL OF BRESCIA 
1470 



Civerchio 
Ferramola 



1544 
1528 



B. 


D. 


Romanino 1485 


1566 


Moretto = Bonvicino c. 1498 c. 


ISS4 


Calisto da Lodi 


1562 


Moroni c. 1520 


1578 



SCHOOL OF VERCELLI 

Macrino d'Alba c. 1470 c. 1528 

Gaudenzio Ferrari c. 1470 1546 
Bazzi = Sodoma 1477 1549 

Girolamo Giovenone c. 1490 1555 
Lanini (Paduan in- 
fluence) ^1511 1581 

SCHOOL OF PARMA 

Correggio = Allegri 1494 153. 
Parmigianino = Maz- 

zola 1504 1540 

Baroccio 1528 1612 

Cigoli 1559 1613 

SCHOOL OF CREMONA 

Boccaccio Boccac- 

cino 1467? 1525? 

Giulio Campi c. 1500 1572 

Sofonisba Anguissola 1528 1625 

NEAPOLITAN SCHOOL 

Ribera = Spagnoletto 1588 1656 
Salvator Rosa 1615 1673 

Giordano 1632 1705 



FLEMISH PAINTERS 



Jean van der Asselt 


i3 6 4 


1380 


Jean de Beaumez 


1377 


1395 


Melchior Broederlane 






of Ypres 


1382 


1400 


Jean Malwel 


1397 


1415 


Painters and varlets to the Counts 


of Flanders and Dukes of Burg 


undy. 



SCHOOL OF BRUGES 



Hubert van Eyck 
Jan van Eyck c. 

Dieric Bouts c. 

Rogier van der Wey- 
den 



1366 
1385 
i39i 



1426 
1440 
1475 



1399 1464 






ART SUPPLEMENT 



259 



Petrus Cristus 

Gerard van der Meire 

Robert Campin 

Jaques Daret c. 1403 

Justus or Jodocus van 

Ghent 1410 

Hugo van der Goes 1420 
Hans Memling c. 1435 

David Gheerardt 
Rogier van der Wey- 

den, the younger 
Peter Claes or Claeis 

sins I 
Giles Claeissins^i 
Peter 

sins II I 

Anthony Claeis- g £ 

sins J c 

John Claeissins, son 

of Peter II 



D. 
1472 
1472 



1471 
1481 

J 495 
!5 2 3 



1450 1529 



Claeis- 1 *£ HH 



1499 



*53 6 



1605 
1623 
1613 
l6 53 



1532 
1521 

T S42 



1495 1562 



SCHOOL OF NETHERLANDS 

Quentin Matsys 1466 1531 

Jan Gossaert = Ma- 

buse c. 1470 

Herri Bles = Civetta 1480 
Barend van Orley 1490 

Jan van Schoreel or 

Schoorl 
Michiel van Coxcien 

= Coxie and other 

spellings 
Lambert Lombard = 

Susterman 
Sir Antonio Mor = 

Moro 
Frans Floris (Vriendt) 
Pieter Brueghel c. 

Joachim Patinir 
Pauwel Bril 
Pieter Brueghel, the 

younger 
Janssens van Nuyssen 
Martin Pepyn 
Nicholas de Liemakere 

= Roose 



1499 



1506 



1592 
1566 



1512^.1578 
1520 1570 



1520 
1556 

1564 
^67 
1575 



!5 6 9 
1524 
1626 

1637 
1632 
1642 



1575 1646 



Rubens 
Frans Snyders 
Kasper de Crayer 
David Teniers 
Jan or "Velvet" Brue- 
ghel c. 
Jacob Jordaens 
Suttermans = Suster- 

mans 
Theodoor Rombouts 
Lucas van Uden 
Jan van der Hoecke, 
pupil of Van Dyck 
Anton Van Dyck, 1623 
in Venice, Rome, 
and Genoa; 1607 
court painter to 
Charles I 
Adrian van Utrecht 

(kitchen scenes) 
Theodoor van Tulden, 

pupil of Van Dyck 
Pauwel de Vos (ani- 
mals) 
Erasmus Quellin, pupil 

of Van Dyck 
Joos van Craesbeeck 
Jan Fyt (animals) 
David Teniers the 
younger ; Flemish 
art declined after 
Teniers till the re- 
vival of the 19th 
century. 
David Rijckart, imi- 
tator of Craesbeeck 
Jacobus van Artois 
Gonzales Coques the 

Little Van Dyck 
Pieter van der Faes = 

Sir Peter Lely 
Frans Duchatel 
Abraham Teniers 
(brother of David) 
Gerard de Lairesse 
Cornelius Huysmans 
Jan Frans van Bloemen 



B. D. 

1577 1640 

T 579 1657 

1582 1669 

1582 1649 

1589 c. 1642 
1593 1678 

1597 1681 
J 597 1637 
1595 c. 1673 

1598 1651 



1599 1641 

!599 1653 

1607 1676 

1667 

1607 1678 
1608? 

1609 1661 



1610 1690 

1612 1662 

1613 c. 1684 

1614 

1618 1680 

1625 1694? 

1629 1671 

1641 1711 

1648 1728 

1662 1740 



260 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



GERMAN PAINTERS 



SCHOOL OF BOHEMIA 

1348-1378 

Theodorich of Prague. 

Nicholaus Wurmser and Kunz 
arose and flourished under Charles 
IV, mostly wall-painting. 



SCHOOL OF COLOGNE 

Meister Wilhelm of 

Cologne op. 1358 1372 

Meister Stephan Loch- 

ner op. 1442 145 1 

Meister Christophorus, 
known as Master of 
the Cologne Cruci- 
fixion op. 1500 1 5 10 

Master of the death of 
the Virgin op. 15 15 

Bartholomaus Bruyn d. 1556 



SCHOOL OF WESTPHALIA 

Master of the Lyvers- 

berg Passion op. 1463 1480 

Master of Liesborn op. 1465 



SCHOOL OF SAXONY 

B. D. 

Lucas Cranach 1472 1553 

Lucas Cranach, the 

younger 1515 1586 



GERMAN SCHOOL 



Wohlgemut 

Martin Schongauer, 
called Martin Schon, 
Bel Martino, and 
Beau Martin from 
the beauty of his 
works c. 

M. Griinwald c. 

Albrecht Durer 

Hans Burckmair 

Hans Fuss 

Albrecht Altdorfer 

Bartholomaus Zeit 
blom op. 

Nicholaus Manuel c. 

Hans Schaufelin 

Christopher Amberger c. 

Hans Holbein, the 
younger 

Martin Schaffner op. 

Georg Pencz c. 

Hans Sebald Behan 

Barthel Behan 

Heinrich Aldegrever 

Jakob Bink 

H. Brosamer (engraver) 

Heinrich Goltzius 

Johann Rottenhammer 

Adam Elshaimer = Elz- 
heimer 

Joachim von Sandrart 

Balthasar Denner 

Christian W. E. Die- 
trich 



B. 

1434 



D. 
1519 



c. 1450 
c. 1460 c. 

1471 
1473 

c. 1480 

1484 
1484 
1490 
1490 

1497 
1499 
1500 
1500 
1502 
1502 

1506 

1558 
1564 

1574 

1606 

1685 



1488 

1529 
1528 

r 53i. 
1522 

1538 

1516 

1530 
1540 

1563 

x 543 
1535 
i55o 

1540 
1558 
1569 

1617 
1623 

1620 
1688 
1747 



1712 1774 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



261 



DUTCH PAINTERS 

The Dutch School was founded in the fifteenth century by Aalbert 
van Ou water, and at first Flemish in its character, attained its most 
brilliant period in the seventeenth century, when an enormous number of 
artists were working; only the best known are given. 



Aalbert van Ouwater, 

none of his work 

remains. 
Jerom Bosch = H. van 

Aeken c. 

Cornells Engelbrecht- 

sen 
Lucas Jacobsz = Lucas 

van Leyden 
Mierevelt 

Jan van Ravesteyn 
Frans Hals 
Gerard van Honthorst 

= Gherardo della 

Notte c. 

Jan van Goyen 
Pieter Jansz Saenre- 

dam 
Jan Wynants 
Salomon van Ruysdael 
Jan Davidsz de Heem 
Evert van Aelst 
Adriaen Brouwer, pupil 

of Frans Hals c. 
Aalbert Cuyp 
Jan Lievens 
Rembrandt Harmensz 

van Rijn 

Emmanuel de Witte 

Jacob Backer 

Gerard ter Borch 

Andries Both) , ., 
T d^i. \ brothers 
Jan Both J 

Adriaan Jansz = Van 

Ostade 
Ferdinand Bol 
Simon de Vlieger 
Bartholomeus van der 

Heist 



1460 
1468 

1494 

i5 6 7 
1572 
1584 



1590 
1596 

1597 
1600 ? 
1600 
1600 
1602 

1605 
1605 
1607 

1607 
1607 
1608 
1608 

c. 
1610 

1610 
1611 
1612 



D. 



1518 
1533 

1533 
1641 

1657 
1666 



1656 
1666 

1665 

1670 
1674 
1658 

1638 
1691 
1663 

1669 
1692 
1651 
l68l 
1644 



1685 
1681 
1660 



1613 1670 



Pieter van Laar = Bam- 

boccio 
Gerard Dow 
Govaert Flinck 
Remigius Nooms 
Philip Wouwerman 
Aart van der Neer 
Philips de Koninck 
Willem van Aelst, 
nephew of Evert van 
Aelst 
Nicholaas Pietersz = 

Berghem 
Jan Victors op. 

Jan van de Capelle op. 
Isack Jansz = van Os- 
tade, brother of Ad- 
riaan 
Gerbrand van der Eck- 

hout 
Aldert van Everdingen 
Hendrik Martensz 

Sorgh = Rokes 
Jan Beerestraaten 
Emanuel Murand 
Cornelis de Heem, 
son of Jan Davidsz 
de Heem 
Karel Fabritius or 

Faber 
Paulus Potter 
Karel du Jardin c. 

Jacob van Ruysdael, 
nephew of Salomon, 
and head of Dutch 
landscape school 
Jan Steen 

Samuel van Hoog- 
straeten 



B. 

1613 

1613 

1615 

1616 

1619 

1619? 

1619 



D. 

1674 

1675 
l66l 

1668 

1683? 

1689 



1620 1679 



1620 
1640 
1650 



1621 
l62I 

1621 
1622 
1622 



1624 
1625 
1625 



1625 
1626 



1683 
1662 
1680 



l62I 1649 



1674 
1675 

1682 
1687 
1700 



1623 1671 



1654 
1654 
1678 



1682 
1679 



1627 1678 



262 


ART SUPPLEMENT 






Jan Parcellis 


B. 
1628 


D. 


Jan van der Heyden 


B. 

1637 


D. 
1712 


Gabriel Metsu 


[630 aft 


.1667 


Gerrit Berck-Heyde 


1638 


1698 


Job Berck-Heyde 


1630 


1693 


Meindert Hobbema 


1638 


1709 


Maria Van Ooster- 






Abraham Mignon 


1639 


1679 


wyck, pupil of Jan 






Caspar Netscher 


1639 


1684 


Davidsz de Heem 


1630 


1693 


Adriaan van der Velde 


1639 


1672 


Willem Kalf 


1630 


1693 


Pieter van Slingeland 


1640 


1691 


Ludolf Bakhuisen 


1631 


1708 


Jan Weenix 


1640 


1719 


Peter de Hooch c 


1632 c 


1681 


Eglon van der Neer 


1643 


1703 


Nicolaas Maes = Maas 


1632 


1693 


Godfried Schalcken 


1643 


1706 


Jan van Meer 


1632 


1696 


Adriaan van der Werff 


1659 


1722 


Jan de Bray 




1697 


Cornells Decker 




1678 


Frederic de Moucheron 


l6 33 




Cornells Dusart 


1660 


1704 


Willem van de Velde 


* 6 33 


1707 


Willem van Mieris, 






Jan Dubbels 






son of Frans van 






Frans van Mieris 


1635 


1681 


Mieris 


1662 


I 747 


Melchior d'Honde- 






Rachel Ruysch 


1664 


I750 


coeter 


1636 


1695 


Jan van Huysum 


1682 


1749 


Jan Hackaert 


1636 


1699 


Jan Frans van Bredael 


1683 


1750 



FRENCH PAINTERS 

The real history of French painting as a separate art begins with the 
Italian artists working in France in the reign of Francis I (1515-1547). The 
previous art of the country had been decorative, mural paintings, and also 
beautiful miniatures for MSS. (See Supplement of Miniature Painting.) In 
1305 Giotto was working at Avignon at mural painting, and Simone 
Martini in 1339. The latter founded a school of Franco-Sienese Art at 
Avignon, which exercised influence on the mural art of several places. 

The early French artists were also much influenced by Flemish 
painting. 



B. 



D. 



Rene of Anjou, minia- 




Jean Cousin may be 






ture painter, also ex- 




called the founder of 






ecuted some pictures 1408 


1480 


the French School 


1501 


1589 


Jehan Fouquet, chiefly 




Primaticcio 


1504? 


i57o 


miniatures 141 5 


1485 


Francois Clouet, son of 






Jehan Bourdichon, 




Jean Clouet 


1510 


1572 


worked in reign of 




Toussaint Dubreuil 




1604 


Louis XI (1461-1483) 




Ambroise Dubois 


J 543 


1614 


Jehan Perreal, worked 




Martin Freminet 


i5 6 7 


1619 


in reign of Charles 




Antoine Le Nain 


1588? 


1648 


VIII (1483-1498) 




Francois Perrier of 






Jean Clouet (Flemish) 




Burgundy 


1590 


1656 


worked under Fran- 




Simon Vouet 


1590 


1649 


cis I (1515-1547) 




Jacques Callot 


1592 


1635 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



263 





B. 


D. 


Louis LeNain, brother 






to Antoine 


1593 


1648 


Matthieu Le Nain, 






brother of Louis 






and Antoine 




1677 


Nicolas Poussin 


1594 


1665 


Jacques Stella 


1596 


1657 


Valentin 


1600 


1634 


Jacques Blanchard 


1600 


1638 


Claude Lorraine 






(Gellee) 


1600 


1682 


Philippe de Cham - 






paigne 


1602 


1674 


Michel Corneille 


1603 


1664 


Nicolas Mignard 


1605 


1668 


Laurent de la Hire 


1606 


1656 


Louis de Boulogne 


1609 


1674 


Pierre Mignard = Le 






Romain 


1610 


^95 


Charles de Fresnoy 


1611 


1665 


Caspar Dughet (Gas- 






par Poussin) 


1613 


167S 


Sebastian Bourdon 


1616 


1671 


Eustache Le Sueur 


1617 


1655 


Thomas Blanchet 


1617 


1689 


Charles le Brun 


1619 


1690 


Pierre or Paul Patel 


1620? 


1676 


Jacques Courtois, Le 






Bourgignon 


1621 


1676 


Noel Coypel 


1628 


1707 


Antoine Fr. van der 






Meulen 


1634 


1690 


Jean Baptiste Mon- 






noyer 


1634 


1699 


Charles de la Fosse 


1636 


1716 


Claude Audran 


1639 


1684 


Michel Corneille des 






Gobelins (designed 






for tapestry) 


1642 


1708 


Jean Frangois Millet 






= Francisque 


1642 


1680 



Rene Antoine Houasse 

Jean Jouvenet 

Francois de Troy 

Nicolas Colombel 

Joseph Parrocel 

Bon Boulogne 

Jean Baptiste Santerre 

Francois Verdier 

Blaise de Fontenay 

Louis de Boulogne 

Genevieve and Made- 
leine de Boulogne op. 1699 

Joseph Vivien, crayon 
portraits 

Jean Baptiste Martin 

Hyacinth Rigaud, call- 
ed the Van Dyck of 
France 

Antoine Coypel 

Francois Desportes 

Antoine Rivalz 

Claude Gillot 

Jean Raoux 

Jean Frangois de Troy 

Antoine Watteau 

Jean Baptiste Vanloo; 
his younger brother 
had a greater reputa- 
tion 

Jean Marc Nattier 

Jean Baptiste Oudry 

Frangois Lemoine 

Nicolas Lancret 

Noel Nicolas Coypel 

Charles Coypel, his 
half-brother 

Jean Baptiste Pater, 
follower of Watteau 

Louis Tocque 

Pierre Subleyras 



B. 


D. 


1644 


1707 


1644 


1717 


1645 


1730 


1646 


1717 


1648 


1704 


1649 


1717 


1650 


1 7 17 


1651 


1730 


1654 


1715 


1654 


J 733 


1699 




1657 


1735 


1659 


1735 


1659 


1743 


l66l 


1722 


l66l 


1743 


1667 


1735 


1673 


1722 


1677 


1734 


1679 


i75 2 


1684 


1721 


1684 


1745 


1685 


1766 


1686 


1755 


1688 


1737 


1690 


1743 


1691 


x 734 


1694 


1752 


1695 


1736 


1696 


1772 


1699 


1749 



264 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



SPANISH PAINTERS 



The three great schools of Spanish painting were: (1) Castile, centres 
at Toledo, Badajos, Valladolid, and finally Madrid. (2) Andalusia, 
centres at Cordova, Granada, and Seville. (3) Valencia. There was 
also a smaller school at Aragon. 

The earliest was Castile, it arose in Toledo, where the Cathedral was 
begun in 1226, which was the cradle of Spanish art, and Toledo was the 
home of Spanish artists for four hundred years. 

The earliest growth of art was derived from Italian and Flemish in- 
fluences ; many foreign artists worked in Spain, and Spanish artists studied 
abroad. In the sixteenth century Italian influence predominated. 
Velazquez and Murillo produced the really great national schools in the 
seventeenth century. Spanish art declined in the eighteenth century. 

Some early painters not classified into schools. Petrus de Hispania 
was employed by Henry III of England (1216-1272); Rodrigo Esteban, 
recorded to have been painter to Sancho IV (1284-1295); Gherardo 
Stamina (135 4- 141 3) was the first Italian artist in Spain. A series of 
pictures on a ceiling in the Alhambra (c. 1460), artist unknown, whether 
Moorish or Christian. Dello, a Florentine (b. 1404); Maestro 
Rogel, a pupil of Van Eyck, who was in Portugal in 1429 at the court 
of Juan II; Maestro J. Inglis, an Englishman, painted a retablo in 
1455, with portraits. 



Early Artists at Toledo 

B. D. 

Juan Alfon op. 141 8 

Antonio Rincon c. 1446 1533 

Fernando del Rincon, 

son of Antonio 
Alonso Berruguete c. 1480 1561 
Pedro Machuca 

Juan de Borgona op. 1495 c - I 533 
Antonio and Inigo de 

Comontes 
Francisco Comontes, 

son of Inigo 0^.1547 1565 

Juan de Villoldo aft. 1551 

SCHOOL OF CASTILE 

Fernando Gallegos c. 1475 J 55° 
Luis de Morales c. 1509 
Alonso S. Coello ^S? 

Gaspar Becerra 1520 

Juan Fernandez Navar- 

rete (El Mudo) 1526 1579 



1586 
iS9° 
i57o 



Miguel Barroso 

Diego Correa op. 

Alonso de Herrera op. 

Martin Galindez 

Domenico Theotoco- 
puli, known as El 
Greco, also sculptor 
and architect c. 

Juan Pantoja de la 
Cruz 

Juan Sanchez Cotan 

Isaac de Helle op. 

Luis de Velasco op. 

Pedro de las Cuevas 

Juan Bautista Mayno 

Eugenio Caxes 

Vincencio Carducho 
(Florentine) 

Luis Tristan 

Antonio Lanchares 

Juan Rizi 



B. 


D. 


1538 


I590 


I550 




I 59° 




1547 


1627 


1548 


1625 


i55i 


1609 


1561 


1627 


1568 




1581 






1635 


1569 


1649 


1577 


1642 


iS78? 


1638 


1586 


1640 




1658 


1595 


1675 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



265 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Pedro de Obregon 


1597 




Francisco Frutet op. 


1548 




Bartolome Gonzales op. 161 7 




Antonio Perez op. 


1548 


I5 6 4 


Luis Fernandez op. 1654 




Luis Fernandez op. 


1580 




Antonio A. Fernandez 




Bias de Ledesma 






Francisco Collantes 


1599 


1650 


Mateo Perez de Alesio, 






Antonio Pereda 


1599 


1669 


an Italian 




1660 


Velazquez 


1599 


1660 


Juan de las Roelas 


1558 


1625 


Juan de Pereja, his 






Varela (his pupil) 






half-caste slave anc 






Antonio Mohedano 


1561 


1625 


pupil 






Francisco Pacheco 


i57i 


1654 


Cristobal G. Salmeran 


1603 


1666 


Francisco de Herrera 






Francisco Fernandez 


1605 


1646 


El Viejo 


1576 


1656 


Francisco Rizi 


1608 


1685 


Francisco de Herrara 






Juan de Arellano 


1614 


1676 


El Mozo, his son 






Don Juan Carreno de 






Juan de Castillo 


1584 


1640 


Miranda 


1614 


1685 


Alonso Vasques 




1649 


Josef Leonardo 


1616 




Juan Bautista Vasques 






Juan B. Martinez de 






Agustin de Castillo 






Mazo 




1687 


Francisco de Zurbaran 


1598 


1662 


Antonio Puga 






Alonso Cano 


1601 


1667 


Diego de Polo 


1620 


l6 55 


Antonio Castillo, son 






Benito Manuel de 






of Agustin 


1603 


1667 


Aguero 


1626 


1670 


Pedro de Moya 


1610 


1666 


Claudio Coello t 


". 1630 


1693 


Juan de Toledo 


1610 


1665 


Mateo de Cerezo 


i 6 35 


1675 


Murillo 


1617 


1682 


Francisco Camilo 


l6 35 


1671 


Sebastian Gomez, his 






Sebastian Munoz 


1654 


1690 


slave 
Fernando Joya 




1682 
1672 


SCHOOL OF ANDALUSIA 


Bernabe de Ayala and 












the brothers Pol - 






Juan Sanchez de Cas- 
tro 
Juan Nunez 


| Seville. Fif- 
r teenth 
J century 


ancos, pupils of Zur- 
baran 
Ignacio de Iriate 


1620 


1685 


Alexo Fernandez 


Henrique de las Mar- 






Luis de Vargas, rea' 






inas 


1620 


1686 


founder of the school 


1502 


1568 


Juan Escalante 


1627 


1695 


Antonio de Arfian op 


•1585 




Juan de Valdes Leal 


1630 


1691 


Sturmio op 


• !555 




Villavicencio 


1635 


1700 


Pedro de Villegas 






Francisco Menesez Os- 






Marmolejo 


1520 


1597 


orio 




1700 


Pablo de Cespedes, 






Acisclo Velasco wrote 






also sculptor, archi- 






a great work on 






tect, and poet 


1538 


1608 


painting (the Vasari 






Cristobal de Vera 






of Spain) 


1653 


1725 


Juan Penaloso 


Pupil 


s of 


Miguel de Tobar 


1678 


1758 


Zambrano 


Cespedes 


Bernardo G. Llorente 


1685 


1757 


Antonio de Contreras 






Josef Riseno 




172I 



266 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



SCHOOL OF VALENCIA 




B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Josef Garcia Hidalgo 


1656 


1711 


Pedro Nicolas Factor 






Senen Vila op. 


1678 


1708 


" El Beato " 
Vicente Juan Macip, 


1520 


1583 


SCHOOL OF ARAGON 


called Vicente Jo- 






Ramon Torrente 




1 3 2 3 


anes or Juan de 






Guillen Tort, his pupil 






Juanes, followed by 






Bonant de Ortiga op. 


1457 




a son and two 






Pedro de Aponte, real 






daughters 


x 5 2 3 


*579 


founder of the 






Nicolas Borras 


I S3° 


1610 


school, second half 






Francisco Ribalta c. 


J55 1 


1628 


of 1 6th century 






Pedro Orrente c. 


1560 


1644 


Thomas Pelegret, time 






Pablo Pontons, his 






of Charles V 






pupil 






Pedro Guitart op. 


1576 




Esteban March 




1660 


Paul Esquarte (Ita- 






Josef de Ribera "Lo 






lian) op. 


1580 




Spagnoletto," often 






Rolando Mois (Ita- 






classed among Ita- 






lian) op. 


1580 




lian artists 


1588 


1656 


Antonio Galceran, 






Juan di Ribalta, son 






pupil of Esquarte 






of Francisco Ribalta 


1597 


1628 


Lupicino (Florentine) 






Jacinto G.de Espinosa 


1600 


1680 


Geronimo de Mora 






Miguel March, son of 






Isaac Hermes op. 


1587 




Esteban 


l6 33 


1670 


Don Luis Pascual Gau- 






Louis de Sotomayor 


1635 


1673 


din 


1556 


1621 


Juan Conchillos Falco 


1641 


1711 


Anthony Horfelin 
Pedro Pablo and Sera- 
fin, both Greeks 


1597 




MURCIA (a province of 


Jusepe Martinez 


1612 


1682 


Valencia) 






Joaquin Juncosa 


1631 


1708 






Geronimo Secano 


1638 


1710 


Nicolas de Villacis 




1690 


Bartolome Vicenti 


1640 


1700 


Mateo Gilarte 


1648 


1700 


Antonio Viladomat 


1678 


1755 



PORTUGUESE PAINTERS 

The origin of Portuguese painting derived from Flemish, German, and 
Italian artists who worked in Portugal. It was influenced also by the 
Portuguese contact with the East. The result is that a confusion of styles 
is a prevalent feature in the Portuguese School. The School may be 
roughly divided into three periods. 

(1) Early, with unformed and uncertain effects. As far back as 1279 
names of painters occur in the Archives, but nothing is known of them 
except that their work was not important. The first real painters were also 
illuminators. 

(2) The culminating epoch of work was at the end of the fifteenth and 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



267 



beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Names of fifteenth century artists 
obscure. 

(3) Decadence, from*:. 1578. When King Sebastian was killed and the 
national greatness fell, painting fell too. Also the Inquisition helped to 
confine the limits of painting by the restrictions which it imposed. 

The most important Painters 

In 1428 Jan Van Eyck visited Portugal; his influence lasted into the 
sixteenth century. 



Antonio de Holanda 


B. 

aft 


D. 

J 549 


Gaspar Diaz 


op. c.i 534 


Francisco de Holanda, 






Antonio Emmanuel 




his son 


1517 


1584 


Campello 


op.c. 1540 


Painter of the " Life 






Francisco Fernandez 


op.i55 2 


of Christ " at Viseu 






Emmanuel de Castro 


op. 1698 


Cathedral op. 


1500 


1520 


Francisco Viera de Mat- 




Velasco op. 


1520 


1540 


tos 


B. 1699 


Vasco Fernandez 






His namesake born 




(Gran Vasco) op. 


1520 




later on 





ENGLISH PAINTERS 

The fine English School of painting rose at a later date than the schools 
of other countries, but a few pictures prove that some native artists existed 
at an early date, such as the thirteenth century series of small paintings by 
an English artist which once formed the frontal of the High Altar at 
Westminster Abbey, showing Florentine influence. Also the portrait of 
Richard II (137 7- 1399) now in Westminster Abbey, believed to be the work 
of an English artist of the fourteenth century. Edward III (1327-1377) had 
the chapel of St. Stephen, Westminster, adorned with works by native 
artists. A peculiar blue was used at the time mentioned in a German MS. 
as "The London practice." A good portrait of Henry IV (1399-1413) 
now at Cassiobury. A picture of Henry V (1413-1422) and his relations. 
A portrait of Richard III (1483-1485). The tapestry in St. Mary's Hall, 
Coventry, representing Henry VI (1422-1471) and others kneeling before 
the altar, probably made from English designs. 

In the fifteenth century a considerable number of foreign artists were 
working in England under the patronage of Henry VIII. 



Foreign Artists in the reign of 
Henry VIII (1509-1547) 



Gerrard L. Horebout 
Susannah Horebout 
Antonio Toto came in 

i53i 
Girolamo da Treviso 



B. 

1475 



D. 
1558 



Lucas Cornelisz 

Hans Holbein the 
younger came in 
1526; died in Eng- 
land 

Girolamo Pennacchi 
came in 1542 



B. 

1493 



D. 
1552 



1497 1543 



1497 1544 



268 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



Vincent Volpe B. d. 

Bartholomew Penni 
Alice Carmillon 
Lavinia Terling 

Foreign Artists in the reign of 

Edward VI (1547-1553) 
Gwillim Stretes 
Katherine Maynors 
Gerbach Flick 
Nicholas Lyzardi 
Johannes Corvus 
William Key or Caius 

Foreign Artists in the reign of 

Mary (1553-1558) 
Joost Van Cleef 1500 
Antonio Mor, Moro 

or More remained 

till the Queen's 

death 1512 1576-8? 

Lucas de Heere 1534? 1584 

Foreign Artists in the reign of 
Elizabeth (1558-1603), most of 
whom painted her portrait 

Lucas de Heere !534? ^84 

Cornells Vroom 

Zucchero 1543 1609 

Marc Gheeraedts or 
Gerrard 

Foreign Artists in the reign of 
James I (1603-1625) 

Daniel Mytens | Portrait 

Paul Van Somer > -n • . 
~, v T ( Painters 

Cornells Jonson J 

Foreign Artists in the reign of 

Charles I (1625-1649) 
Rubens came in 1629 1577 1640 
Anthony Van Dyck 

came in 1632 *599 1641 

Gerard Van Honthorst 
Van der Faes = Sir 

Peter Lely, came 

1643 1617 1680 

Jean Petitot 1607 1691 



Foreign Artists in the reign of 
Charles II (1660-1685) 

Antonio Verrio (decor- B. d. 

ated Windsor Castle) 1634 1707 
Sir Godfrey Kneller 

came in 1674 1648 1723 

James Parmentir 1658 1730 

Louis Laguerre 1663 1721 



Native English Artists 



Andrew Wright 

John Brown (contem- 
porary) 

Nicholas Hilliard first 
native artist of im- 
portance. Chiefly 
miniature portraits 

Isaac Oliver (minia- 
tures) 

Peter Oliver, his son 
(miniatures) 

George Jamesone 
(Scotch) 

John Hoskins (minia- 
tures) 

Robert Walker 

Isaac Fuller 

Samuel Cooper (minia- 
tures) 

William Dobson 

Henry Stone, son of 
the sculptor 

Robert Streater 

J. M. Wright 

Henry Anderton 

Mary Beale 

John Riley 

John Greenhill 

William Wissing 

Jonathan Richardson 

Charles Jervas 

William Aikman 

William Hogarth, the 
first native English 
painter of great ori- 
ginality 

William Knapton 



1547 
i55 6 



1543 



1619 
1617 



1586 1644 



1606 

1609 
1610 



1664 
1658 
1672 

1672 
1646 



1653 
1680 
1700 



1624 
1625? 
1630 c. 1665 
1632 1697 



1646 
1649 
1656 
1665 

1675 
1682 



1697 
1698 



1691 
1670 
1687 
1745 
!739 
!73i 



1764 
1778 



The great native English painting rose in the eighteenth century. 
Royal Academy established in 1768 by George III. 






MINIATURES 

NOTES ON THE RISE AND DEVELOPMENT OF MINIATURE PAINTING 
IN RELATION TO ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS. 

The term miniature is derived from the Latin word minium, the red 
paint used for the earliest decoration of MSS. 

In the classical period the person who worked with the minium in MS. 
decoration was called the miniator, and had nothing to do with 
pictures. The transference of the term miniature to the small pictorial 
subjects of the MSS. was owing to a confusion of French writers between 
the Latin word minium, the Latin minus, and their own word, mignon. 

Miniature illustration was used for classical works before the Chris- 
tian era. 

Lala of Cyzicus, a lady, the earliest recorded miniaturist. She executed 
portraits on ivory in a biographical work for Varro. None of her work 
remains. It was on ivory and vellum. 

Roman miniatures of the first and second centuries a.d. are known 
by mediaeval copies. Ex. : the Vatican Psalter, which contains a twelfth 
century copy of a first century (or earlier) miniature of Orpheus. 

THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURIES 

The two Vatican Vergils (Rome). One has fifty miniatures, proto- 
types of the first liturgical books of the Christian era. 

The Roman Calendar (Vienna), a fragment, fourth century. 

FIFTH CENTURY 

Fragment of the Iliad (Milan), eight miniatures. The style probably 
copied from a much earlier Greek original. 

Earliest known Byzantine miniatures. The type lasted till the tenth 
century with little modification of style, though advance in technique. 

The Vienna Genesis (Vienna). First example known of a Christian 
illuminated MS. Eighty-eight miniatures. The symbolism which underlies 
all early art is shown in its allegorical figures. Similar to the Byzantine of 
a later date. 

The Joshua Roll of the Vatican (Rome) probably belongs to this 
date; 32 feet long. Rivers, mountains, etc., personified in the Byzantine 
manner. 

269 



270 ART SUPPLEMENT {Miniatures) 

SIXTH CENTURY 

Classic forms in Italian miniatures declined. 

Byzantine miniatures rose with characteristics of ancient Greek paint- 
ing. Colours imported for them from India, Persia, and Spain, and 
Byzantine gold ink was manufactured from imported Indian gold; ex., 
fragment of the Gospel book of Hormisdas the Pope (B.M.), sent by 
him to the Emperor Justinian. 

Dioscorides, a collection of Treatises by Greek physicians on plants, 
fishing, the chase, etc. (Vienna). 

Books brought into England by St. Augustine, 596, probably the models 
of some of the early English illuminations. 

SEVENTH CENTURY 

Period of climax of Celtic monastic art and technique. 

Book of Kells (688-700). An Irish MS. Culminating point of Irish 
caligraphy with wonderful interlacing patterns. Perfect technique and fine 
colour. The art travelled into England with a branch of the Irish colony 
from Iona which settled at Lindisfarne in 636. A centre arose there, 
and continued for the production of illuminated MSS. of Celtic type. 

Between 670-690 "Wilfrid of York and Benedict Biscop, of Jarrow, 
brought many illuminated MSS. from Rome, and formed important 
libraries at York and Jarrow. 



EIGHTH CENTURY 

BYZANTINE Art received a check under the Iconoclastic Emperor 
Leo the Isaurian (717-740), and, though the Empress Irene restored 
Icondulism temporarily, it was a period of stagnation of miniatures. Num 
bers of Byzantine illuminated liturgical books were destroyed during the 
century. 

ENGLAND. Lindisfarne Gospels or the Durham book (B.M.), 
illuminated by Monk Athelwold. Fine Anglo-Celtic work influenced by 
Byzantine and Italian. Many examples of Celtic miniatures, some com- 
bining Italian and debased classic with the Celtic style. 

Alcuin, the Northumbrian scholar, revived the art in various cities and 
monasteries of the Western Empire. Theodulf of Orleans, a great scholar, 
assisted him in the revision of the Bible and executed decorations for it. 
He also decorated scientific and philosophical works. 

NINTH CENTURY 

Alfred the Great, a patron of illuminated MSS. 

Book of Deer, Celtic style written in Scotland. Celtic miniatures in 
England not so good as in the seventh and eighth centuries. 

School of Miniatures of Celtic type at St. Gall, Switzerland, the 
monastery founded by St. Gallen, a disciple of Columbanus. 

Aix-la-Chapelle produced good illuminated MSS. Influenced by 
Alcuin of Northumbria, who was abbot at Tours from 796 to 804. 






ART SUPPLEMENT {Miniatures) 271 

BYZANTINE. A good period of MSS. Many fine examples. A return 
to Greek Art under the Emperor Basil I (867); ex., beautiful Greek 
Psalter at Paris, facial types of pure classical character. Seven pictures 
from the life of David, with personifications of rivers, mountains, etc. 
Greek Menologium (Vatican) a typical Byzantine MS. 

Byzantine work continued till after Constantinople was taken by the 
Turks in 1453. 

CAROLINGIAN work rising. Many fine MSS., with miniatures pro- 
duced for Charles the Great and his family. Fine ex., his Coronation gift 
in B.M. 

TENTH CENTURY 

GERMANY. Painting improved, influenced by the Greek artists, who 
took refuge at the German court during the troubles in the Eastern 
Empire. 

Very fine miniatures, Carolingian and Monastic styles, under the 
Othos and Henry the Fowler. 

ENGLAND. A large number of MSS. were produced, which were not 
so good as those of the ninth century, influenced by the debased classical 
art of Italy. A native school arose at Winchester known as Opus Angli- 
cum, unsurpassed by any contemporary schools; ex., the Benedictional 
of /Ethelwold 970 (Lib. of Duke of Devonshire) with thirty full-paged 
miniatures, showing Carolingian influence owing to the introduction of 
foreign illuminators. The foliated frames and interlaced patterns of the 
Opus Anglicum lasted on with gradual improvement till the fourteenth 
century. Many examples extant. 

St. Dunstan created a school of illuminating at Glastonbury. 

ELEVENTH CENTURY 

ITALY. Lombardic School at La Cava and Monte Cassino belong 
to this century and the next; ex., Missal of Henry II. Fine specimen, 
which supplied the type of the English glass painting. Otherwise there was 
comparatively little miniature and illuminating work done. It was a stage 
of decline, the surviving classical style had become feeble in touch, and a 
weak reflection of the decayed Byzantine. 

TEUTONIC SCHOOL. Mainly a period of decadence succeeding the 
Carolingian style, which ended when the empire was divided in France 
among the feudal lords. 

ENGLAND. Anglo-Saxon School, which had become a weak imita- 
tion of debased classical style, ended, and the splendid school of Anglo- 
Norman developed, called " Opus Anglicum." 

TWELFTH CENTURY 

GERMANY. Rapid revival of the art, chiefly in Benedictine monas- 
teries. Transitional to Gothic. Rich twining foliage mingled with dragons, 
monkeys, human forms, monsters, and grotesques. Ex., Psalter of 
Queen Ingeburga (Paris), twenty-seven large miniatures. Mural paint- 
ings of the same date (late twelfth) in St. Michael's Hildesheim of the same 



272 ART S UPPLEMENT (Miniatures) 

type. Rhenish Germany produced a high class of work for the 
period. 

ENGLAND. Very fine miniatures; advance in design and technique; 
ex., Roll of Guthlac, hermit of Crowland; eighteen circular miniatures. 

THIRTEENTH CENTURY 

FRANCE. The art of illuminating flourished at Paris, Transitional to 
Gothic. Many fine miniatures. Ex., Psalter of St. Louis (IX) (Paris), 
and historiated Bibles. 

GERMANY. Fine illuminations and miniatures, showing marked in- 
fluence of France. 

ENGLAND. Very beautiful Anglo-Norman style of miniatures very 
closely resembling the French, the art at a high level. The Fitz Othos, a 
family of illuminators and mural painters. Ex., Psalter for Queen 
Eleanor, wife of Edward I, c. 1284. 

English, Flemish, and Northern French schools showed much similarity. 

SPAIN. A document (1291-92) containing the expenses of King 
Sancho IV, illuminated by Rodrigo Esteban, painter to the King. 

ITALY AND SICILY. Advancing. Little progress had hitherto 
been made. Ex. (Sicilian) De arte Venandi cum avibus (Vat. Lib., 
Rome), birds and hunting scenes, produced under Frederick II. 

FOURTEENTH CENTURY 

FRANCE. Produced the finest miniatures in Europe, sacred and 
secular, Franco- Flemish style. No longer wholly in the hands of monastic 
scribes, but produced by guilds like other arts and crafts. Paris and 
St. Denis important centres. Ex., Hours of Jean de Barry (Roy. Lib., 
Brussels), by Andre Beauneveu and Jacquemart de Hesdin; finished 
1380. 

ENGLAND. Best period of the Anglo-Norman School, which con- 
tinued to produce very beautiful work. Ex., Lectionary of Siga Was. 
A change in style in the reign of Richard II ; additional fresh features in 
the luxuriant flower and foliage borders, resembling Bohemian style more 
than French. Portraits on a large scale: fine portrait of Richard II. The 
gem of the century, the Psalter of Queen Mary, so called because 
presented to her. It contains a pictorial biblical history from the Creation 
to the death of Solomon, and New Testament scenes. 

SPAIN. Garcia Mantinez, a Spanish Illuminator, worked at Avig- 
non. Gonzales Ferran, a wood engraver and painter, probably a 
miniaturist. Juan Cesilles, recorded in the archives at Barcelona. 

PORTUGAL. Cancioniero of Dom Pedro Affonso, Count of Bar- 
cellos, a good specimen of the illumination of Spain and Portugal (1320- 

I 34°)- 

ITALY. Produced very fine MSS., with miniatures of high excellence, 
under the immediate influence of Giotto. Dante mentions Aderese of 
Gubbio, but little is known of him. Don Silvestro of Florence (fl. 1350) 



ART SUPPLEMENT {Miniatures) 273 

executed exquisite very small miniatures, his style lasted 150 years. Fra 
Angelico illuminated MSS. with miniatures. Skilful Italian illuminators 
worked in France, most resembling Simone Martini and the Sienese 
School. 

GERMANY. In the few remaining specimens of really good work 
foreign influence is distinctly seen, French in the west, and Italian in the 
south. 

BOHEMIA. A school of illumination under Charles IV. A mixture of 
the Gothic ivy leaf and thorn, and the softer Roman and Carolingian 
foliages, and a new scheme of colour. Ex., The Golden Bull (Vienna), 
the celebrated charter of Charles IV. 



FIFTEENTH CENTURY 

ITALY. The art rose to an unrivalled pitch of beauty and perfection 
in Siena, Florence, Venice, Milan, and Naples, etc. Many of the fifteenth- 
century miniatures are unrivalled in any country or age, as they had been 
in the previous century in France. The influx of Greek exiles into Florence 
in 1453, after the conquest of Constantinople by the Turks, led to a 
revival of classical art there. They brought ancient Greek and Latin MSS. 
with them, and a new development took place with classical style and in- 
fluence. Skilled imitations of jewels in the borders began the decadence of 
miniatures which took place in the sixteenth century. 

FRANCE. A large number of Franco- Flemish MSS., sacred 
and secular; remarkable for the amount of laborious illumination, and 
the number of miniatures they contained. Examples: The Bedford 
Breviary (Paris) executed for the Regent of France contains 2,500 
beautiful miniatures. It contains also some English work. King Rene's 
Romance. The Shrewsbury MSS. executed for Henry VI of Eng- 
land, with fine portraits. Foquet de Tours (fl. 1470-1475), a famous 
miniaturist, fine colour and landscape backgrounds, founded the School of 
Touraine. Book of the Hours a favourite type. Grandes Heures 
de Berry (Nat. Lib., Paris), by Jacquemart Hesdin, Andre Beauneveu, 
and Pol de Limbourg (finished 1409). Heures de Berry (Chantilly), 1410, 
considered the finest example. The classical Renaissance in Italy affected 
French MSS., architectural backgrounds, floral borders, reptiles, shells, and 
insects. At the end of the century, cheap MSS. were turned out by thou- 
sands by the Guild scribes, and, though good work was still being done, the art 
began to decay. Books of Hours became monotonous in form and detail. 

FLEMISH. Important development of Flemish-Teutonic style under the 
Van Eycks and their pupils, who produced elaborate and beautiful illustra- 
tions, different in some respects from the Franco-Flemish work. Ex., 
Chronicles for Edward IV of England, said to be done by Van Eyck, 
with portraits. The celebrated Grimani Breviary (Doges' Palace, 
Venice) executed for the Grimani family, great patrons of Art. Gerard 
David is now considered to have executed the marvellous miniatures in it 
formerly attributed to Hans Memling. The famous Roman de la Rose 
(B.M.). Histoire de Charles Martel, 105 paintings by Loisel Liedet. 

T 



2 74 ART SUPPLEMENT {Miniatures) 

DUTCH. MSS. show realistic architectural details, furniture and 
domestic objects. 

SPAIN. Many notices of miniature painters, especially at Toledo, the 
taste probably brought from Naples after the conquest of that kingdom by 
Alfonso V of Aragon, 1441. An embargo was laid on the miniaturists by 
the Spanish Inquisitor, prohibiting the light style of the Italians, and the 
realistic style of the Flemings. This greatly accounts for the black back- 
grounds and the sombre tone of many of the Spanish miniatures. " The 
Sombre Period" began under Ferdinand, the Catholic, but it was not 
always followed, as may be seen in many of the famous choir books of 
the Escurial. 

PORTUGAL. Garcia de Rizende (B. c. 1470) illuminated for 
John II. He records that illuminating was at a high level. 

ENGLAND. In the reign of Edward IV (1461-1483) Flemish illumina- 
tion was introduced. It gradually superseded the native style, which 
almost disappeared by the time of Henry VII (1485). 

SIXTEENTH CENTURY 

ITALY. Some good renaissance work continued, but the decadence 
had set in. The issue of the cheaper Aldine Classics gave the death blow 
to the art of illuminating. Vellum printed books came in with illuminated 
decoration. The art of printing spoilt the production, though it did not 
abolish the penman entirely, and some fine works were still produced; 
ex., Gradual of Milan (Brera Lib., Milan) and Hours of Bona Sforza 
of Milan (B.M.). Prayer-book of Bianca Maria of Milan (Royal 
Lib., Munich) and some Roman Productions; exs., The Triumphs of 
Petrarch (Holford Lib., London) and The Missal of Cardinal 
Colonna (Sciarra Lib., Rome). 

FLEMISH. Albrecht Diirer illustrated a prayer-book for the Emperor 
Maximillian in 15 15. 

SPAIN. Italian and Netherlandish miniaturists were invited to assist 
in executing the great choir books for the Escurial ordered by the King, 
Philip V. They contain about 30,000 pages, in enormous volumes, covered 
with richly ornamented initials, miniatures and borders. 

The Spanish illuminators at work on them were: 

Ambrosio Salzar 



Cristobal Ramirez 
Fray Andres de Leon 
Fray Julian de Fuente 
Pedro Gomez 



Fray Martin de Pallencia 
Francis Hermandez 
Pedro Salavarte 



Other illuminators of the period were Andres Cristobal, Esteban, and 
Julian de Salazar. 

PORTUGAL. MSS. of this century show decadent Flemish influence. 
Antonio de Holanda, of Flemish origin, flourished under Emmanuel and 
John III, famous throughout Europe, artist and illuminator, died after 
1549. Francisco de Holanda, his son. Fernando vas Dourado (d. 1571). 
Miguel Barata, also published a treatise on his own art. Missal of Este vam 
Goncalvez Neto, end of century. Bible of the Hieronymites, 



ART SUPPLEMENT {Miniatures) 275 

partly Italian work. Missale Romanum (B.M.) executed for John III 
(1557), fine work. Leal Conselheiro attributed to Vasco. 

ENGLAND. Portrait miniatures entered a new and forthwith dis- 
tinctive phase of existence, influenced by Hans Holbein, who painted 
many miniature portraits. By the time of Queen Elizabeth English minia- 
ture painting, in relation to illumination, was ended. Nicholas Hilliard 
(1547-1619), first English artist who worked only on miniature portraits, 
adopted Holbein's style. Painted many royal portraits, and established 
the school of miniature portraits as a distinct branch of art. Isaac Oliver 
(1556-1617) followed the same branch of art. 

INDIA. Indian miniatures were brought to Europe, and some of 
the early Dutch and Flemish art shows a close affinity of technique to 
them. 

Moghul miniatures. Calcutta Art Gallery possesses a fine collection 
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the classical period of Moghul art. 

Four classes of Moghul miniatures : 

I. Finished outline drawings, mostly portraits. Fine form, character, 
and life. 
II. Studies of birds and animals, outline and colour. Often direct from 
nature. 

III. Portraits. 

IV. Historical and genre pictures. 

SEVENTEENTH CENTURY 

PORTUGAL. Genealogies of the House of Sandova (1612) 
(Paris). Very fine MS. number of Portraits. The Portuguese Gene- 
alogies (B.M.). Very fine work, final instance of Flemish work in 
Portugal. 



SOME PRINCIPAL SCULPTORS OF EUROPEAN 

COUNTRIES 



Italian 


French 


Franco- Flemish 


English 


Flemish 


German 


Flemish-Burgundian 


Spanish 


ITALIAN SCULPTORS OF 12TH CENTU 


Maestro Guglielmus 


Enricus 


Bonamico 


Gruamonte 


Biduvinus 


Rodolfo 


Guidectus 


Bonanno 


Robertus 


Benedetto Antelami 



ITALIAN RENAISSANCE SCULPTORS 
(Many minor sculptors not included) 



D. 

1278 



Niccola Pisano aft. 1200 

Giovanni Pisano, his 

son c. 1240 

Fra Guglielmo d'Ag- 
nolo 0/. 1267 

Lorenzo Maitani 

Andrea Pisano (real name 
Andrea da Pontadera) c. 1 2 7 3 c. 1 349 

Giotto ^.1276 c. 1337 

Nino Pisano 

The Cosmati family ( see 
Appendix XXVI) 

Giovanni Balduccio 

Orcagna 

Filippo Calendario 

Giacomo della Quer- 
ela c. 

Filippo Brunelleschi 

Lorenzo Ghiberti 1378 ^1455 

Bandino di Stefano 

Francesco Bruscaccio 

Francesco da Verona 

Giuliano da Poggibonsi 

Antonio di Domenico 

Benozzo Gozzoli 

Bartolo, Ghiberti's step- 
father 

Niccolo di Lorenzo 



1300 
1308 



i37i 
1377 



1320 



1330 



1360 



1347 
1368 

1355 

1438 
1446 



jjo o 



Donatello, and others 

Among the boys employed 
were: 

Paolo Uccello 
Jacopo di Bartolommeo 
Vittorio, Ghiberti's son 

Vittore Pisano = Pisan- 
ello (medallist and 
cameo worker) c. 1385 

Agostino di Duccio c. 

Donatello 1386 

Nanni di Banco 



D. 

S _ o „ 
jn W>T3 « 

.-2 9 S^g 
O 



1455 
1461 
1466 



Bertaldo di Giovanni 
Villano da Padua 
Desidero da Settignano 
Michelozzo Michelozzi 
Luca della Robbia 
The five Rossellini 

brothers : 
Domenico 

Bernardo, chiefly an 
architect to Nicho- 
las V 
Giovanni 
Tommaso 
Antonio, the most 

celebrated 
Andrea Bregno 



Pupils of 
Dona- 
tello 

1399 1482 



1407 



1409 
1417 
1422 

1427 
1421 



1464 
1496 



1479 
1506 



276 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



277 





B. 


D. 




B. 


D. 


Antonio Rizzo = Breg- 






Andrea Sansovino 


1460 


I5 2 9 


no c 


.1430 t 


.1498 


Andrea Contucci 


1460 


1529 


Mino da Fiesole 


I43 1 


1484 


Giovanni della Robbia, 






Pietro Lombardi op. 


1462 


i5 r 5 


son of Andrea 


1469 


1529 


Tullio Lombardi, his 






Andrea Riccio 


1470 


1532 


son 




1559 


Benedetto da Rovez- 






Giuliano da Ma-^ 




r 




zano 


1474 


1552 


jano 


in 


I43 2 




Michael Angelo Buon- 






Giovanni da Ma- 


M 






arroti 


1474 


I5 6 4 


jano 


>£< 


1438 




Rustici 


1476 c. 


155° 


Benedetto da Ma- 


O 
1-1 

PQ 


,1442 




Tribolo 


1485 


1550 


jano, the most 






Jacopo Sansovino 


i486 


1570 


important 




t. 




Alfonso Lombardi 


1497 


1537 


Antonio Pollajuolo 


1429 


1498 


Girolamo della Rob- 






Andrea della Robbia, 






bia, son of Andrea 


1488 


1566 


nephew of Luca 


1437 


1528 


Baccio Bandinelli 


1493 


1560 


Guido Mazzoni 




1518 


Antonio Begarelli 


1498 c. 


1565 


Andrea Verrocchio 


J435 


1488 


Bambaja op 


.1528 


1548 


Matteo Civitali 


1435 


1501 


Benvenuto Cellini 


1500 


1572 


Piero Pollajuolo 


1443 


1496 


Montorsoli 


1505 


i5 6 3 


Giuliano da San' 




r 




Bartolommeo Amma- 






Gallo 




1443 


1510 


nati 


15" 


1592 


Antonio da San 









Giovanni da Bologna 


i5 2 4 


1608 


Gallo 


w 


. r 455 


1534? 


Vincenzio Danti 


1530 


1576 


Antonio Amadeo 


1447 


1520 


Stefano Maderno 


i57i 


1636 


Alessandro Leopardi 


c 


1522 


Alessandro Algardi c. 


1598 


1654 


Vittore Gambello 






Bernini 


1598 


1680 


Leonardo da Vinci 


i45 2 


i5 x 9 








After Bernini, ] 


talif 


in scul 


pture d< 


jclined and degenerated into an 


arti- 



ficial style. 



FRANCO-FLEMISH SCULPTORS 



Jean Pepin de Huy 0^. 13 1 1 
Jean de Liege op. 1361 

Hennequin de Liege 13 16 
Guillaume du Gardin 1341 
Andre Beauneveu 1360 
Jean de Cambrae, 



1329 


Worked in the Gothic 


1382? 


Cathedrals of France 


1368 


and Flanders end of 




the fourteenth cen- 


1400 


tury 



FLEMISH SCULPTORS 



Herman Glosencamp 

of Bruges (wood) 
Lancelot Blondeel of 

Bruges (wood) 
Jean de Marville op. 1369 



1390 



Guyot de Beaugrand of 
Mechlin 



Klaus Sluter 
Klaus Vousonne 
Jacques de Baerze 



Executed the 

tomb of Philip 

the Brave at 

Bruges 1404 



278 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



FLEMISH BURGUNDIAN SCULPTORS 

who worked on the Mausoleum of the Dukes of Burgundy at Dijon; they 
came from Hainault and Flanders. 



B. 

Jean de Marville at 


D. 


Klaus de Verve, his 




Dijon op. 1369 
Jacob de Baerze at 

Dijon 1391 
Klaus Sluter at Di- 


1390 


nephew 
Jean de la Huerte 
Antoine de Moiturin 


op. 141 2 
op. 1443 
op. 1470 


jon op. 1389 









FRENCH SCULPTORS, PRECURSORS OF THE RENAISSANCE 
(chiefly monumental) 



Jean Ravi, conducted 
work at Notre Dame 
for 26 years 

Jean Bouteiller, his 
nephew, followed 
him and completed 
the work 1591 



Hennequin de la Croix. 
Time of Charles V 
Michel Colombe 
Jean Texier 
Jean Juste 



B. 



I43 1 !5 l 4 



FRENCH SCULPTORS OF THE RENAISSANCE PERIOD 



Jean Cousin 


1501 


1589 


Pierre Puget 


1622 


1694 


Germain Pilon 


1515 


!59o 


Francois Giradon 


1630 


1715 


Jean Goujon 


1530 


iS72 


Antoine Coysevox 


1640 


1720 


Simon Guillain 


1581 


1658 


Nicholas Coustou 


1658 


J733 


Jaques Sarrazin 


1590 


1660 


Guillaume Coustou 


1678 


1746 



PRINCIPAL ENGLISH SCULPTORS 



Master Walter. 
Master John of Gloucester. 
William Torrel, executed 
the tombs of Henry III 
and Edward I. 
The imaginators of Queen Eleanor's 
Crosses, among them William of 



-£ <+* Z-t 

■is oS 

.5 bO g 



Ireland and Alexander of Abing- 
don are named. 

William Austin, working in reign of 
Henry VI (1422-1454). 

Nicholas Stone (1585-1647). 

Caius Gabriel Cibber. 

Grinling Gibbons (1 648-1 721). 

Francis Bird (1667-1731). 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



279 



GERMAN SCULPTORS 

A very large amount of wood, bronze, and stone work all over Germany, 
during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Altar-pieces and church 
decoration and monuments. 

The most celebrated artists 



B. 

op. 1 43 1 
op. 1458 
the 



Lucas Moser 

Jorg Syrlin 

Jorg Syrlin, 

younger op. 1493 

Meister Hans Maler of 
Gudenburg op. 142 1 

Wohlgemuth executed 
the wood-work carv- 
ing as well as the 
painting of his altar- 
pieces 1434 15 19 

Hendrik Gherwiges 

Laurens Groven 

Veit Stoss c. 1440 1533 

Jorg Hiiber, his pupil 

Hermann Vischer I 5°9 

Peter Vischer, his fam- 
ous son 1455 1529 

Herman, Peter, and] Did not 
Hans, sons of the \ live beyond 
famous Peter Vischer J 1540 

Adam Krafft 1455 I 5°7 

Hans Schiilein of 
Ulm op. 1469 

Telmensweider 



B. 


D. 




1472 




1493 


op. 1470 




op. i486 





1471 



Friedrich Herlen 
Nicholas Lerch 
Simon Hayder 
Hans Hammerer 
Michel Pacher (Tyrol) 

(master of the altar 

of Creglingen) op. 
Desiderius Beychel op. 1493 
Nicolaus Gruden op. 1455 
TilmanRiemeschreider 1460 
Jorg Riemenschreider, 

his son 
Meister Ivo Strigeler op 
Meister Jacob Rosch 
Dichter op. 

Albrecht Diirer, carved 

as well as painted 
Theophilus Ehrenfried 

op. 1499 
Meister Jorg Oechsel 
Conrad Vlauen op. 1523 

Adolf Dowher 

Adrien Vries op. 1599 

Hubert Gherhardt op. 1593 
Andreas Schliiter 1662 



i53i 



1501 



1499 



1471 1528 



1525 



1714 
The great monument of Maximilian at Innsbruck arranged by the 

Emperor himself with Conrad Peutinger of Innsbruck, and the casting of 

separate statues begun, 1502. 

Artists who worked on the twenty-eight bronze statues from 1508-1550: 



Sesselschreiber 

Gilg 

Peter Vischer 

Jorg Muschgat 

Stefan Godl 



Jorg Koldern 
Christof Amberger 
Hans Leudenshauch 
Loffler and some other bronze 
casters 



Artists who worked on the marble reliefs of the sarcophagus from 1560- 
1566: 



Alexander Colin 
Bernhard Abel 



Arnold Abel 



280 



ART SUPPLEMENT 



SPANISH SCULPTORS IN STONE AND WOOD 



iVallfonga's 
assistants 



B. D. 

Maestro Mateo 1168 1217 

Maestro Bartolomeo fl. 1278 

Jaime Castaylo 1375 

Juan de la Huerte, 14th 
century 

Pedro Oiler, late 1 4th or 
early 15 th century 

Pedro Vallfonga 1447 

Jorde Johan, his bro- 
ther 

Guillermo de la Monte 

Pedro Gar 

Pedro Navarro 

Sancho de Zamora 

Juan de Segovia 

Nufro Sanchez and his 
pupils working in 

1475 
Gil Mortan 

Diaz de Fuente Pelayo 1472 

Digo de la Cruz 
Alfonso Sanchez 
Sebastian Almoner 
Pedro Millan 
Juan Fernandez Aleman 
Rodrigo Aleman o >, 

Pablo Ortes is 5 

Gabriel Gonibao / ^ a 

St. Ferdinand 
Miguel (the Florentine) 
Dancart (Flemish) 
Jeronomio Hernandez 
Gaspar Delgardo (his 

pupil) 
Borgone 1543 



B. D. 

Berruguete 1480 1561 

Gaspar de Tordesella, 

his pupil 
Diego Molens "\ 

Diego Riano I contemporary with 
Martin Gainoza | Berruguete 
Peti Man J 

Androz de Najera 
Juan de Juni 1507 1577 

Daman Forment I S 11 I 533 

Gaspar Becerra 1520 1570 

Pedro Gumiel 
Enrique de Egas 
Diego Copin (Dutch) 
Juan Rodrigues 
Juan Orfes 

Francesco Giratte J 5 76 

Esteban Jordan 1599 

Pedro Delgado 
Gregorio Hernandez 1570 1636 

and his many pupils 
Mena, 16th and 17 th 

centuries 
Juan Francesco de 

Hibarna 
Tudel Tudelilla 
Montana and his pupils, 

first half of 17th 

century 
Alonzo Cano, his pupil 1601 1676 
Alonzo de los Rios 1650 
Juan Villanueva 
Alonzo Villabrille 
Roldan 
Roldana his daughter 1656 1704 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Some of the principal authorities and works used in compiling the tables 
and selecting the notes. 

Egypt 

Flinders Petrie. History of Egypt. 

Arts and Crafts of Egypt. 

Various Articles and Historical Studies published by the British 
School of Archaeology in Egypt. 

Personal Religion in Egypt. 
J. P. Mahaffy. Ptolemaic Rule in Egypt. 
J. G. Milne. Egypt under Roman Rule. 
Stanley Lane-Poole. Egypt in the Middle Ages. 

Babylon and Assyria 

W. Chad Boscawen. The First of Empires (Babylon). 
L. W. King. Story of Sumer and Akkad. 

F. C. Norton. Handbook of Assyriology. 

Catalogue of British Museum, Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities. 

Crete 

C. H. and H. Hawes. Crete the Forerunner of Greece. 
James Baikie. Sea Kings of Crete. 
Catalogue of Ashmolean Museum for Cretan objects. 

Greece 

H R. Hall. The Oldest Civilization of Greece. 

C. W. C. Oman. History of Greece. 

G. Finlay. Byzantine Empire. 

O. M. Dal ton. Byzantine Art and Archaeology. 
W. Miller. The Latins in the Levant (Frankish Greece). 
The Zaccaria of Phocaea and Chios. 

D. G. Hogarth. Ionia and the East. 
P. Gardner. Grammar of Greek Art. 

Ernest A. Gardner. Handbook of Greek Sculpture. 

L. Whibley (edited by). A Companion to Greek Studies. 

Rome, Italy, Germany, and Europe generally 

Evelyn S. Shuckburgh. History of Rome to the Battle of Actium. 
J. B. Bury. History of the Roman Empire, 27 B.C. to 180 a.d 
Later Roman Empire. 

281 



282 BIBLIOGRAPHY 

J. E. Sandys (edited by). A Companion to Latin Studies. 
Ferdinand Gregorovius. History of Rome in the Middle Ages. 
Eugenie Strong. Roman Sculpture. 
Ch. Huelsen. Roman Forum. 

A. L. Frothingham. Christian Monuments in Rome. 
James Bryce. Holy Roman Empire. 
Mediaeval Town Series. Venice, Siena, Perugia, etc. 
Arthur Hassall. European History chronologically arranged, 476-1910. 
HassalFs Periods of European History, 5 vols, of the 8 vols. : 
I. The Dark Ages (476-918) by C. W. C. Oman. 
II. The Empire and the Papacy (918-1273) by T. F. Tout. 

III. The Close of the Middle Ages (1273-1494) by R. Lodge. 

IV. Europe in the Sixteenth Century (1494-1598) by A. H. Johnson. 
V. The Ascendency of France (1598-1715) by H. O. Wakeman. 

E. A. Freeman. General Sketch of European History. 

Old English History. 
J. R. Green. A Short History of the English People. 
Emily Lawless. Ireland. 
W. Liibke. History of Sculpture. 
C. Perkins. Handbook of Italian Sculpture. 
Hans Stegmann. The Sculpture of the West. 
A. M. Cust. Ivory Workers of the Middle Ages. 
W. Maskell. Ivories, Ancient and Mediaeval. 
W. R. Lethaby. Mediaeval Art. 
G. T. Rivoira. Lombardic Architecture. 
J. H. Parker. Gothic Architecture. 
Leader Scott. The Cathedral Builders. 
Roger Smith. Gothic and Renaissance Architecture. 
G. E. Street. Gothic Architecture in Spain. 
Royall Tyler. Spain, a Study of her Life and Arts. 
Bernhard Berenson. Dates are taken from various works on Italian 

Painters. 
J. A. Symonds. Renaissance in Italy. 
G. Carotti. History of Art, vols, i and ii. 
Winchester Charts of Italian Painters. 
Poynter's Handbook of Art Series for lists of Painters of France, Spain, 

Portugal, Germany, Holland, etc. and dates. 
J. H Middleton. Illuminated Manuscripts in Classical and Mediaeval 

Times. 
J. L. Propert. History of Miniature Art. 
J. W. Bradley. Illuminated MSS. 
Henry Havard. Dutch School of Painting. 
Richard Garnett. Italian Literature. 
C. H Herford. German Literature. 
Edward Dowden. French Literature. 
Ed. Gosse. English Literature. 
/. Fitzmaurice- Kelly. Spanish Literature. 



BIBLIOGRAPHY 283 

China and Japan 

Friedrich Hirth. Ancient History of China. 

D. C. Boulger. History of China. 
H. E. Giles. Historic China. 

Literature of China. 
F. Brinkley. Japan and China, vols, vii and viii (Art). 
Laurence Binyon. Painting in the Far East. 
David Murray. History of Japan. 
W. E. Griffis. Japan in History, Folk-lore, and Art. 
W. Anderson. Pictorial Arts of China and Japan. 
Edward Dillon. The Arts of Japan. 
W. G. Aston. Japanese Literature. 

India 

Imperial Gazetteer of India, vol. ii, published 1909, for History, Art, and 

Literature. 
A. F. Hoernle and H. A. Stark. History of India. 

E. B. Havell. Indian Sculpture and Painting. 
Stanley Lane-Poole. Mediaeval India. 

A. A. Macdonnell. Sanskrit Literature. 



ABBREVIATIONS 

N.M.A. = National Museum, Athens. 

A.M. = Acropolis Museum, Athens. 

O.M. = Olympia Museum. 

D.M. = Delphi Museum. 

V.M. = Vatican Museum. 

C.M.R. = Capitoline Museums, Rome. 

N.M.R. = National Museum, Rome. 

B.M. = British Museum. 

L. = Louvre Museum. 

G.M. = Glyptothek, Munich. 



INDEX 



Aahmes I, 13. 

Abbasid caliphs, 96, 1 12, 133, 146. 

Abbeys in Ireland, 80. 

Abelard, 122, 130. 

Abram, 10, 11. 

Abu Simbel, 14. 

Acragas, destruction of, 39. 

Acre, capture of, 132, 133. 

Acts of Supremacy, 205. 

of Uniformity, 205, 225. 
Adrian IV (Breakspeare), 129, 135 
Aegean (early), 11. 

culture, 18. 
Aegospotami, 36. 
iElfred the Great, 106, 107. 
Aemilius Lepidus, 54. 
^Ethelberht, 84. 

yEthelred the Unready, 114, 115. 
/Ethelstane, 114. 
Afghanistan, 20. 
Agathocles, 44. 
Agesilaus, 41. 
Agincourt, 183, 184. 
Agricola, 66. 

Ahaz (King of Judah), 24. 
Ajunta caves, 57, 70, 76, 91. 
Akbar, 209, 228, 229. 
Akhenaten, 14, 17. 
Alabaster work, English, 186, 205. 
Alaric, 78, 80. 
Alberic II, 109, no, in. 
Albigenses, 133, 141, 147. 
Alboin, 82, 83. 
Alcibiades, 36. 
Alcuin, 97. 
Aletes, 19, 23. 
Alexander the Great, 42, 44, 45, 46. 

Severus, 71. 

Ill (Pope), 130. 

of Parma, 201. 
Alexandria, 42, 45, 48, 50, 56, 65, 69, 72, 

80, 84, 133. 
Alexius Comnenus, 121, 131. 
Alfonso VI ("Emperor of Spain"), 123. 
Alhambra, 147, 162. 
Alva, Duke of, 200, 201. 
Alyattes, 27. 
Amaravati, 70, 76, 8-1. 



Amasis, 33. 
Ambrose, St., 75. 
Amenardus (Queen), 24. 
Amenemhat I, II, III, and IV, 8. 
Amenhotep I, 13. 

II, III, and IV, 14. 
America, 180, 188, 208. 
Amerigo Vespucci, 200, 208. 
Amraphel, 10, 11. 
Ancus Marcius, 27. 
Andhra Dyn., 57, 62, 66, 70, 72, 81. 
Andrea Palladio, 195. 
Anglo-Saxon literature, 115. 
Angus Macfergus, 97. 
Anjou, 122. 
Anna Comnena, 131. 
Anne of Austria, 198, 199, 218. 

of Brittany, 171, 183. 

Queen of England, 226. 
Anselm, Archbp. of Canterbury, 124, 

135- 

Antef, 7. 
Anthemius, 78. 
Anthony, St., 72. 
Antigonus, 45. 

Cyclops, 43. 

Doson, 48. 

Gonatas, 48. 
Antinous, 69. 
Antiochus Soter, 49. 

Ill (the Great), 49, 53, 55, 56. 
Antipater, 42, 61. 

Antipopes, in, 119, 128, 129, 156, 173. 
Antoninus Pius, 67. 
Antony, 59, 60. 
Anuradhapura Palace, 57. 
Apollonios of Tyana, 59, 65, 66. 
Appius Claudius Caecus, 46. 
Apries, 33. 
Arabia, 84. 
Aragon, rise of, 113. 
Ara Pacis, 60. 
Archimedes, 50. 
Architecture, European styles of: 

Anglo-Saxon, 89, 90, 97, 107, 115, 124, 
252. 

Baroque, 222, 223. 

Carolingian, 96. 



285 



286 



INDEX 



Architecture, European styles of— con- 
tinued. 

Gothic, 134, 136, 140, 143, 144, 147, 
148, 149, 156, 157, 158, 164, 166, 
175, 180, 184, 186, 199, 200, 204, 
226, 252. 

Lombardic and Romanesque, 95, 102, 
106, in, 113, 118, 120, 122, 123, 129, 
130, 134, 140, 147, 156, 161, 177, 180. 

Moorish, 96, 97, 135, I47> 161, 162, 
200. 

Norman Lombardic, 124, 136, 137, 252. 

Perpendicular, 166, 185, 205, 252. 

Renaissance, 156, 157, 175, 176, 184, 
192, 194, 196, 199, 200, 204, 226, 
252. 

Tudor, 205, 252. 
Ardys, 27. 

Arian controversy, 74, 7S> ^ 2 - 
Aristides, 35. 
Aristogeiton, 30. 
Aristotle, Library of, 59. 
Armagh See founded, 80. 
Armenia, 56, 61, 65, 76, 89. 
Arnold of Brescia, 129, 130. 
Arnolfo di Cambio, 142, 144. 
Arsaces, 49. 

Art. See under the various countries. 
Artaxerxes I, 38, 39. 

II, 38, 44- 

111,44- 
Arthur of the Round Table, 84. 
Arthurian legends, 136, 150. 
Art Mac Morrough, 167. 
Ascetics in Egypt, 45, 65. 
Ashikaga Shoguns, 169, 170, 210, 211. 
Ashur, 17, 21. 
Ashur-bani-pal, 27, 28. 
Ashur-Nasir-Pal, 21. 
Asoka, 52. 
Asolo, 175. 
Assisi, 145. 
Assyria, 17, 21, 25, 28. 

Three Epochs, Appendix VI, 237. 
Astyages, 34. 
Athanasius, Bishop, 75. 
Athens, 19, 215, 217. 
Attalus I, 49. 

HI, 54, 55- 

Attila, 78, 80. 
Augustine, St., 79. 

(Austin), 84. 
Augustus Caesar (Emperor), 59, 63. 
Aurangzeb Alamgu, 228, 229. 
Aurelian, 71. 
Austria, Duchy of, 128. 
Avantivarman, 107. 
Averroes the Arab, 1 30. 
Avesta, 34. 



Avignon, Popes at, 155, 156. 
Avitus, 78. 

Baalbec temple, 68. 

Babylonia, 2, 4, 7, 9, 10, 16, 21, 25, 28, 33. 

Table of notable dates, Appendix I, 

235- 

Three Epochs, Appendix V, 236. 
Bacon, 206. 
Baglioni, 176. 
Baldassare Peruzzi, 194. 
Baliol, 150. 
Bamboo books, 19. 
Bank of England, 226. 
Banners, Buddhist, 91. 
Bannockbum, 165, 166. 
Barbarossa (Frederick), 128, 129, 130, 131. 
Barnet, Battle of, 185. 
Barometer invented, 216. 
Bartholomew, St., Massacre, 203. 
Basilicas in Rome, 55. 
Basil, St., Order of, 74, 247. 

II, Emperor, 112. 
Bayard (Chevalier), 203. 
Bayeux Tapestry, 134. 
Beaufort, Cardinal, 184. 

Duke of Somerset, 185. 
Bede, the Venerable, 90. 
Bedford, Duke of, 183, 184. 
Belisarius, 82. 
Benedict, St., 79, 83. 

Biscop, 90. 

VIII (Pope), 119. 
Benvenuto Cellini, 197. 
Berenger, 109. 

Berlin system of Egyptian dating, 3, 235. 
Bernard, St., 129, 133. 
Bernardino, St., 158, 173, 176. 
Bernini, 215, 219, 226. 
Bernwald of Hildesheim, no. 
Bertha (Queen), 84. 
Bestiary of de Thaun, 137. 
Bharhut Stupa, 52. 
Bhoja I, 107. 

(Rashtrakuta Dyn.), 125. 
Bible, Editions of, 206. 
Black Prince, 161, 164, 165. 
Blake (Admiral), 220. 
Boabdil, 180. 
Boadicea, 66. 
Boccaccio, 159, 180. 
Bodleian Library, 206. 
Boeotia, 19. 
Boethius, 83. 
Boniface IV (Pope), 87. 

VIII (Pope), 142. 
Book of the Changes, 19. 
Borgia family, 173. 
Borobudur shrine (Java), 98. __ 



INDEX 



287 



Josworth Field, Battle of, 185. 

Bo-Tree (sacred), 52. 
Boyne, Battle of, 225, 228. 
Braccio Fortebraccio, 176. 
Brahmanas, 20, 22, 25. 
Brahmanic Caste system, 47. 
Brahminical revival, 77. 
Brahmins, Monastic Orders of, 107. 
Bramante, 194. 
Brandenburg, Elector of, 213. 
Breakspeare (Nicholas), 129. 
Brehon Law, 107. 
Brian Boru, 115, 125. 
Britain, 61, 65, 68, 71, 76, 80. 
Bronze mirrors, China, 58. 
Bronze art in China, 116. 

(in Japan), 77, 99, 211, 230. 
Bruce, Robert, 149, 150, 165, 166. 
Brunhilda, 85, 89. 
Buckingham, Duke of, 224, 225. 
Buddha, 34j__4Q. 

Buddhism, 52, 53, 57, 66, 69, 70, 73, 77, 
81, 86, 90, 92, 98, 107, 108, 115, 126. 
Buddhistic buildings, five kinds, 40. 
Buenos Ayres, 208. 
Bulgarian prisoners, blinding of, 112. 
Bunyan, 226. 
Burgundy, 104, 165, 182. 
Burnaburiash, 17. 
Bur-Sin, 9. 
Byzantine Empire, 94. 

Art. 75, 79, 83, 95, 105, 110, 112, 121. 
Art, four periods, Appendix XVIII, 241. 
Byzantium, 26, 36. 

Cabot, John and Sebastian, 188. 

Caesar, Julius, 59, 60, 61. 

Cairo, 89, 113, 122, 133, 160, 202. 

Calah (Nimroud), 17. 

Calais, loss of, 205. 

Calcutta, English in, 228. 

Caligula, 63. 

Cambyses, 33, 34. 

Camiros graves (Rhodes), 27. 

Camoens, 200. 

Campaniles, 104, III, 120, 130, 131, 158, 

195. 
Canute, 123, 124. 
Cape of Good Hope, 181. 
Captivity in Babylon, 34. 
Caracalla, 70. 
Caractacus, 66. 
Carinus, 71. 
Carmen Saeculare, 60. 
Carthage, 21.32, 39, 44, 50, 87. 
Carthusian Order, 120, 247. 
Cassander, 42. 
Cassiodorus, 83. 
Cassivelaunus, 61. 



Castile, rise of, 113. 
Catacombs of Calixtus, 71. 
Catechetical school, 69. 
Caterina Cornaro, 174. 
Catherine, St., of Alexandria, 75. 

of Braganza, 225. 

of France, 164, 184. 

of Lancaster, 161. 

de' Medici, 203. 

of Siena, 156, 158. 
Cavaliers, 225. 
Cavallini, 142, 156. 
Caxton, 186. 
Celtic Art, 61. 
Cervantes, 199, 223. 
Ceylon, 52, 57. 
Chaeroneia, Battle of, 42. 
Chaldea, names of early states, Appendix 

VII, 237. 
Chalukyas, 85, 91, 98, 116, 126, 138. 
Chambers of Rhetoric, 182, 201. 
Chandragupta Maurya, 46, 51. 

I and II, 76. 
Charles Martel, 95, 96. 

the Great, 94, 95, 96, 101. 

the Great, descendants of, Appendix 
XXI, 245. 

IV (Emperor), 154, 155. 

V (Emperor), 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 
196, 197, 198, 200, 201, 203, 204, 
208. 

of Anjou, 142, 143, 144. 
the Bold, 171, 182, 183. 
the Simple (France), 113. 
VI, le Bien Aime, 164. 

VII (France), 183. 

VIII (France), 171, 175, 176, 180, 183. 

I (England), 224, 225, 227, 228. 

II (England), 225, 228. 

IX of Sweden, 221, 222. 
XII of Sweden, 221. 

Chaucer, 166. 

Cheops (Khufu), 5. 

Chephren (Khafra), 5. 

Chilperic I, 81. 

China (mythical period), 2. 

(Golden Age), 11-. 

(HiaDyn.), 12. 

(Shang and Chow Dyns. ), 19. 

(Chow Dyn.), 22, 25, 29, 34, 40, 47, 52. 

(Han Dyn.), 53, 57, 62, 66, 70, 73. 

(Isin Dyn.), 77, 81. 

(Song and Tsi and three small Dyns.) r 
81, 86. 

(T'ang Dyn.), 92, 98, 108, 1 16. 

(Sung Dyn.), 116, 126, 138. 

(Sung and Mongol [Yuan] Dyns.), 152. 

(Mongol [Yuan] and Ming Dyns.), 168. 

(Ming Dyn.), 189, 210, 229. 



INDEX 



China — continued. 

(Manchu Dyn.), 229. 
Chinese and Japanese Art periods, Appen- 
dix XXIX, 250. 

Encyclopaedia, 116, 189, 229, 230. 

Block printing, 116. 
Chioggia, Battle of, 157. 
Chitsou (Emperor), 229. 
Chlodwigl (Clovis), 81. 
Chosroes I ( = Nushirvan), 82. 

II, 87, 89. 
Chremonidean War, 48. 
Christian art, rise of, 75. 

writers, early, 75. 
Christina, Queen of Sweden, 214, 221. 
Church Fathers, 68, 71, 75. 
Cicero, 59. 
Cid, the, 122, 123. 
Cimon (son of Miltiades), 35. 
Cincinnatus, 39. 
Cividale, 95. 
Claudius (Emperor), 63. 

II (Gothicus), 71. 
Clazomene sarcophagus, 31. 
Cleisthenes, 30. 

Clement VIII, Aldobrandini (Pope), 194. 
Cleombrotus, 41. 
Cleopatra VI, 59, 60. 
Cloisters in Rome, 120. 
Cluny monastery, 113, 122, 134, 247. 
Code of Manu, 72. 
Colet, 186. 

Colonna family, 142, 172, 173. 
Columba, St., 84. 
Columbanus, St., 84. 
Columbus, 180, 181, 187, 188, 208. 
Comacine Master Masons, 88, 95, 102, 

177. 
Commodus, 67. 
Comnenus family, 131, 132. 
Conde, 218. 

Confession of Augsburg, 191. 
Confucius, 34, 40, 231. 
Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 128. 
Constable Charles of Bourbon, 203. 
Constans, 74. 
Constantine I, 71. 

the Great, 74, 75. 

(son of Constantine the Great), 74. 
Constantinople, 74, 82, 8j, 94, 144, 145, 

159, 174, 178. 
Constantius, 74. 
Coptic Art, 76, 80. 
Copts, 84, 89, 106. 
Corinth, 23. 

Corinthian War, 35, 41. 
Coriolanus, 39. 
Corneille, 219. 
Cortes in Mexico, 208. 



Cosimo I (Medici), 196. 

Cosmati family, 142, 143, 157, 248. 

Council of Basel, 1 73. 

of Trent, 191, 192, 194. 
Covenanters, 227. 
Creation Tablets, 28. 
Crecy and Poitiers, 164, 165. 
Crete, 2, 4, 6, 8, 15, 105, 112, 215, 216. 

Method of dating, Appendix IV, 236. 
Cretan vases, 3. 
Croesus, 32, 33. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 225, 228. 
Crucifixion, earliest carving, 79. 

earliest fresco, 87. 

earliest miniature, 83. 
Crusades, 119, 121, 128, 132, 133, 246. 
Cumae, Battle of, 39. 
Cunaxa, Battle of, 36, 38. 
Cush, 5. 

Cuthbert, St., 90. 
Cybele (Dea Dei), 51. 
Cyclic poets, 23. 
Cynocephalae, Battle of, 53. 
Cyprus, 2, 15, 23, 28, 32, 37, 44, 175, 178, 

202. 
Cypselus, 26. 
Cyril of Alexandria, 79. 
Cyrus, 38. 

(King of Persia), 30, 34. 
Czar, title assumed, 202. 

Daedalus, 30. 

Dagobert I, 89. 

Dai-Butsu of Kamakura, 153. 

Daigo (Emperor), 108, 117. 

Danes in England, 97, 114, 115. 

in Ireland, 125. 
Daniel, 28. 

Dante Alighieri, 144, 154, 157, 159, 180. 
Darius, 33, 34, 35. 

Ill, 44, 45. 
David, 18, 21. 
Dea Dei (Cybele), 51. 
Decemviri, 40. 

Defender of the Faith, 193, 204. 
Delos confederacy, 35. 
Deluge (China), 12. 

Tablets, 28. 
Demetrius Polyorcetes, 42, 45. 

II of Macedonia, 48. 

of Bactria, 57. 
Denmark, 104, 221. 
De Ruyter, 220. 
Desmond rebellion, 208. 
De Witt, 220. 
Diaz, Bartolomeo, 181. 
Dictean Cave, 9. 
Dido (Elissa), 21. 
Diet of Worms, 128, 129, 172, 191, 193. 



INDEX 



289 



Diocletian, 71, 73. 

Dion, 44. 

Dionysius I, 38, 44. 

Doctors of the Church, 142. 

Doge Paolo Anafesta (First), 88, 95. 

Andrea Contarini, 157. 

Enrico Dandolo, 131, 144. 

Vitale Faliero, 120, 131. 

Pietro Gradenigo, 144. 

Leonardo Loredano, 196. 

Antonio Venier, 158. 
Doges of Venice, 88, 120, 131, 144, 157, 

158, 175. 196, 215. 
Doges' Palace, 104, 131, 158, 196. 
Domesday Book, 124. 
Dominic, St., 130, 141. 
Domitian, 63. 
Dorians, 19. 

Dragon and tiger pictures, 1 1 6. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 208. 
Dravidians, 91. 
Drusus, 59. 
Duncan, 125. 
Dungi, 9. 
Duns Scotus, 150. 
Dunstan, Archbishop, 114, 115. 
Dutch Republic, 201, 220, 222. 

East India Company, 219. 

in Japan, 230. 



Ea (Chaldea), 2. 
Eadmund the Elder, 114. 

Ironside, 124, 125. 
Eadward the Elder, 1 14. 
Eannatum, 4. 
Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, 104, 112, 120, 

I3i> 145- 

Empire, 159, 177, 178. 

Church, 79. 
East India Company, 209, 226. 
Ecgberht, 97, 106. 
Edda Lays (Icelandic), 129. 
Edict of Nantes, 204. 
Edmund Langley of York, 161, 1 85. 
Edward the Confessor, 124. 
Edward I of England, 149, 150, 165, 166. 

II, 163, 165, 166. 

III, 163, 164, 165. 

IV, 183, 185. 

V, 185. 

VI, 205. 
Egypt, Dyn. O, 1. 

Dyns. I and II, 3. 

Dyn. Ill, 4. 

Dyn. IV, 5. 

Dyns. V to X, 6. 

Dyn. XI, 7. 

Dyns. XII to XIV, 8. 



Dyn. XV, 12. 

Dyns. XVI to XVIII, 13. 

Dyn. XIX, 14. 

Dyns. XX and XXI, 15. 

Dyn. XXII, 20. 

Dyn. XXIII, 24. 

Dyn. XXV, 28. 

Dyn. XXVI, 28, 33. 

Dyn. XXVII, 33, 39. 

Dyn. XXVIII, 39. 

Dyn. XXIX, 44. 

Dyns. XXX and XXXI, 45. 

(Ptolemaic period), 49, 50, 56, 60. 

Roman province, 60, 64, 69, 72, 75, 80, 
84. 

under Moslems, 89, 106, 1 12, 122, 133, 
146, 160, 178, 202. 

Table of notable dates, Appendix I, 235. 

Historical periods, Appendix III, 236. 
Egyptian dating, Berlin system of, Ap- 
pendix II, 235. 
Einsiedeln, Anonymous of, 95. 
El-Azhar University, 113. 
Eleanor of Aquitaine, 133, 136. 
Electress Elizabeth, 224. 
Elephanta cave temples, 91. 
Elizabeth of England, 194, 205, 224. 
Ellora temples, 85, 91, 107. 
Elsass, annexation of, 218. 
Embroidery, 136, 150. 
Emmanuel the Fortunate, 181, 191, 199. 
Empedocles, 38. 
Enamels, no, 118, 122, 134. 
England, 84, 89, 97, 106, 114, 124, 135, 
149, 165, 184, 204, 224. 

Printing in, 186. 
English architecture, Appendix XXXI, 251. 
Enkomi (Cyprus), 15. 
Entemena, 5. 
Epaminondas, 41. 
Ephesus, Council of, 79. 
Epidaurus, Theatre of, 43. 
Erasmus, 172, 186. 
Eratosthenes, 50. 
Eric Bloodaxe, 114. 

II, the Priest-hater, 148. 
Eridu, 2. 
Esarhaddon, 28. 
Escurial built, 198, 199. 
Essenes, 65. 

Etruscans, 19, 28, 32, 33, 40, 46. 
Eudocia, 78. 
Eudoxia, 78. 
Eumenes I, 49. 

II, 54- 
European painters, Art Supplement, 255. 

sculptors, Art Supplement, 276. 
Exodus of Israelites, 18. 
Ezra, 39. 



U 



290 



INDEX 



Falkirk, Battle of, 150. 
Farinata degli Uberti, 144. 
Fatimite Dyn., 112, 132, 133. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 172, 180, 181, 182, 
195, 198. 

II (Emperor), 213, 222. 

III (Emperor), 213. 
Feudal system in Italy, III. 
Field of Cloth of Gold, 203, 204. 
Fire of London, 225. 

Firoz Shah, 151, 168. 

Flagellants, 119. 

Flodden Field, Battle of, 206. 

Flood Tablet (Babylonian), 10. 

Florence, 143, 157, 175, 196, 216. 

Formosus (Pope), 103. 

France, 81, 85, 104, 113, 122, 133, 147, 

163, 183, 203, 217. 
Francis, St., of Assisi, 130, 141. 

I of France, 191, 203, 204. 
Frangipani, 129. 

Frankish Kings (Merovings), 85. 

and Mayors, 89, 95. 
Frederick I, Barbarossa, 128, 129, 130,131. 

II (Emperor), 128, 131, 139, 141. 

III (Emperor), 171, 173, 174. 
I of Prussia, 213. 

William (Elector), 213. 
French Gothic architecture, Appendix 

XXXII, 251. 
Frescoes, 57, 70, 71, 75, 76, 81, 83, 87, 91, 

95, 103, no, in, 130, 142, 149, 156, 

164. 
Froissart, 165, 184. 
Fu-hi, 11. 

Fujiwara family, 93, 108, 117, 126. 
Fulk the black, I, of Anjou, 122. 
II, 132, 136. 

Galatia, Roman province, 61. 

Galba, 63. 

Galerius, 71. 

Galileo, 197, 214, 216. 

Galla Placidia, 78, 240. 

Gallienus, 71. 

Gandhara sculptures, 66, 72, 76. 

Garter, Order of, instituted, 165. 

Gaston de Foix, 197. 

Geese from Medum, 4. 

Gelon of Syracuse, 38. 

Gemmyo (Empress), 99. 

Genoa, 120, 144, 158. 

Genoese colonies in Greece, 146, 161, 179, 

198. 
Genroku period, Japan, 230. 
Genseric, 78, 80. 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, 132, 136. 
Geraldines, 208. 
Germanicus, 63. 



Germany, 89, 104, 118, 140, 155, 172, 

213. 
Geroit Mor, 187, 207. 
Geta, 70. 

Ghetto in Rome, 194. 
Gildas, 84. 

Gilgames, 5, 7, 10, 25. 
Gimel-Sin, 9. 
Gimmu Tenno, 29. 
Gloucester, Duke of, 184. 
Glycerius, 78. 
Godfrey of Bouillon, 118, 119. 

the Hunchback, 118, 119, 246. 
Golden Bull, 155, 156. 

Fleece, Order of, 182. 
Gondophares, 66. 
Gonfaloniere, 157. 
Goths, 74, 78, 80, 82. 
Gournia, 16. 
Gracchi, 55. 

Granada, conquest of, 180. 
Great Interregnum, 140. 

Wall of China, 52. 
Greece, n, 18, 22, 23, 26, 29, 35, 41, 47, 

S3- 

Latin rulers in, 145, 146, 160, 178, 198. 

under Turks, 179, 198, 216. 
Greek colonization, 23, 24. 

dramatists, 32, 37, 43. 

migrations, 18. 

painting, Appendix XIII, 239. 

sculpture, periods of, Appendix XI, 238. 

temples, 26, 27, 31, 32, 37, 43. 

vases, Appendix XII, 238. 
Gregorian Calendar, 194. 
Gregory the Great, 83, 87. 

II and III, 94. 

VI, 119. 

VII (Hildebrand), 118, 119. 

IX, 141. 

XIII, 194, 195, 211. 

XV (Ludovisi), 214. 

of Tours, 85. 
Grinling Gibbons, 226. 
Gudea, 9. 

Guelf of Bavaria, 118. 
Guelfs and Ghibellines, 129, 139, 141, 143, 

144, 154, 156, 157, 158. 
Guiscard (Robert), 118, 119, 120, 121. 
Gunpowder Plot, 224. 
Gupta architecture, 76. 
Gustavus Adolphus, 213, 214, 221. 

Vasa, 202. 
Guy Of Lusignan, 132. 
Gyges, 27. 

Haarlem, siege of, 201. 
Hadrian (Emperor), 67. 
I (Pope), 94. 



INDEX 



291 



Ilagia Triada, 6, 9, 16. 
Hamilcar, 39. 
Hammurabi, 10. 
Hannibal, 39, 48, 50, 51. 
Hanseatic League, 141. 
Hapsburg, House of, 140. 
Harmodius, 30. 
Harold Fairhair, 104, 114. 

Hardrada, 123. 

(of England), 124. 
Haroun-al-Raschid, 96, 105. 
Harris Papyrus, 15. 
Harvey, circulation of blood, 227. 
Hasdrubal, 50. 
Hastings, Battle of, 124. 
Hatshepsut, 13. 
Hebrews, 10, 18, 21, 24, 28, 34, 39, 45, 

49, 56, 61, 65. 
Hegira, 88. 
Heliogabalus, 70. 
Hengist and Horsa, 80. 
Henrietta Maria, 224. 
Henry I (Beauclerc), 135. 

II (Plantagenet), 133, 136, 137. 

III of England, 149. 

IV, 166, 181, 187. 

V, 164, 181, 183, 184, 187. 

VI, 183, 184, 185, 187. 
VII (Tudor), 185. 

VIII, 191, 193, 194, 195, 203, 204, 207, 
208. 

II the Saint (Emperor), 117. 

III (Emperor), 118. 

IV (Emperor), 118, 127. 

V (Emperor), 127, 128. 

VI (Emperor), 128, 131. 

VII (Emperor), 154, 157, 158. 
I (France), 122. 

IV of France, 194, 198, 203, 217, 222. 

Ill of Spain, 161. 

the Fowler, 109, 113. 

the Lion, 128. 
Heptarchy, 89. 
Heraclius (Emperor), 87. 

on painting, III. 
Herakleids, 19. 
Her Hor, 15. 
Hermetic and Gnostic literature, Appendix 

XIV, 240. 
Herod (son of Antipater), 61. 
Herodotus, 39. 
Hesiod, 22. 
Hezekiah, 24. 
Hideyoshi (Taiko), 211. 
Hieratic writing, 3. 
Hiero, 38. 

11,50. 
Hieroglyphic writing, I, 3. 
Hildebrand, 119. 



Himera, Battle of, 39. 
Hipparchus, 30. 
Hippias, 30. 
Hiram I, 21. 
Hissarlik, 18. 

Hittites, 10, 16, 18, 24, 33. 
Hohenstaufens, 129, 140, 246. 
Hojos, rise of (Japan), 153. 
Holland, 141, 163, 219. 
Holy Roman Empire, 96, IOI, 109, 117, 
127, 139. !54, 171, 191. 212. 

Sepulchre Church, 89. 
Holzschuher, 214. 
Homer, 18, 22. 
Homeric hymns, 23. 
Honorius, 74, 78. 

Ill (Pope), 141. 
Hooks and Cods, 163, 182. 
Hophra, 33. 
Hor-em-heb, 14. 
Hoshea (King of Israel), 24. 
Hotspur, Percy, 184, 187. 
Hoysalas, 126, 138, 152. 
Huang-ti (Yellow Emperor), II. 
Hugh Capet, 113. 
Huguenot persecutions, 203, 218. 
Hundred Years' War, 164, 165, 183, 185. 
Hunneric, 78. 
Huns, 22, 29, 74. 
Hun-yii Tartar tribes, 47. 
Hussite controversy, 171. 
Hyksos, 8, 12. 
Hypatia, 76, 80. 

Ibn Batuta, 168. 
Ibn Tulun, 106, 112. 
Iconoclastic controversy, 87, 94, 105. 
Illuminated MSS., Miniatures Art Supple- 
ment, 269. 
India, 20, 22, 25, 29, 34, 40, 46, 51, 57, 
62, 66, 69, 72, 76, 81, 85, 90, 98, 
107, 115, 125, 137, 151, 167, 188, 
209, 228. 
art periods, Appendix X, 238. 
religious periods, Appendix IX, 238. 
Indian temples, 40, 76, 81, 91, 107, 115, 

125, 137, 152. 
Inigo Jones, 226. 
Innocent III, 130, 141. 
IV, 141. 

X (Pamphili), 214. 
Innsbruck monument to Maximilian, 192. 
Inquisition, 141, 1S0, 194, 199, 200. 
Ionic colonies, 19. 
Ireland, 80, S4, 90, 107, 115, 125, 137, 

150, 167,, 187, 207, 224, 228. 
Irene of Constantinople, 94, 104. 
Irish crosses, 90, 137. 
Iron crown, 83. 



292 



INDEX 



Isaac I Comnenus, 121. 

Isabella of France, 163, 164, 166. 

of Portugal, 182, 183. 
Islam, rise of, 88. 
Isolation, period of, (Japan), 230. 
Israelites in Egypt, 14, 18. 
Italy, 104, in, 120, 130, 143, 156, 177. 
Ithome, 23. 
Ivan Vasilovitz, 179. 

the Terrible, 202, 223. 
Ivories, 83, 122, 124, 140, 148, 164, 166, 

184. 
Iyeyasu Tokugawa Shogun, 211, 230, 231. 

Jade work (Chinese), 62, 237. 

Jainism, 34, 52, 115. 

James I and II of Scotland, 186. 

III and IV of Scotland, 187. 

IV of Scotland, 206. 
VI and I, 207, 224, 227. 

II of England, 220, 225, 228. 
Jami Masjid, 188. 

Japan, 25, 29, 58, 62, 67, 73, 77, 81, 86, 
92, 99, 108, 116, 126, 138, 153. 

(Kamakura), 169. 

(Ashikaga Shoguns), 169, 189, 210. 

(Tokugawa period), 230. 

Christians in, 230, 231. 

Portuguese in, 211. 

Wars of Red and White Flags, 138, 139. 
Japanese and Chinese Art Periods, Appen- 
dix XXIX, 250. 

Painter Laureate, 109. 

Renaissance, 190. 

painting, five schools of, Appendix XXX, 
251. 
Java, sculptures, 98, 126, 189. 
Jehu, King of Israel, 21. 
Jeremiah, 28. 
Jerome, St., 79. 

Jerusalem, 18, 34, 49, 89, 121, 132. 
Jesuits, 193, 199. 
Jewellery at Dashur, 8. 
Jingo, Empress, 73. 
Joan of Arc, 183, 185. 
Joanna of Spain, 172, 182, 198, 200. 

I, of Naples, 156. 

II, of Naples, 174. 
Johannes Scotus, 107. 
John Crescentius, no, in. 

(his son), 117. 

I and John II (" Perfect King ") of Por- 
tugal, 181. 
of England, 136, 137, 149. 
of Gaunt, 161, 162, 165, 166, 181, 184, 
185, 186. 
Joseph, 13. 
Josephus, 65. 
Josiah, 28. 



Jovian, 74. 

Judas Maccabaeus, 56. 
Jugurtha, 55. 

Julian Emperors, genealogy of, Appendix 
XIX, 242. 

the Apostate, 74. 
Julianus, 68. 
Julius Caesar, 59, 60, 61. 

Nepos, 78. 

II, Rovere (Pope), 193, 195. 
Justin I and II, 82. 
Justinian, 82. 

II, 87, 94. 

Ka Ap, 1. 

Kait Bey, 178. 

Kalmar, Union of, 162, 163, 222. 

Kamares ware, 9, 15. 

Kanaoka (Kose), 109, 127. 

Kanishka, 69. 

Kaotsou (T'ang Emperor), 92. 

Karamat, 20. 

Karlings, 89. 

Kashta, 24. 

Kassites, 16, 17. 

Kells, Book of, 90. 

Kenneth Macalpine, 107. 

Khafra, 5. 

Khammurabi, 10. 

Khufu, 5. 

Kildare, Earls of, 187, 207, 208. 

Kish, 4, 5. 

Knights of St. John, 195, 202, 247. 

Knights Templars, Order of, 119, 155, 

'163,247. 
Knossos, 4, 8, 16. 
Knox, John, 207. 
Kodrus, 19. 

Koran, publication of, 88. 
Kore Kosmos, 33. 
Kose Kanaoka, 109, 127. 
Kouyunjik library, 28. 
Kublai Khan, 146, 152, 153. 
Kwammu (Emperor), 99, 108. 

Lacquer, 67, 86, 93, 99, 109, 127, 139, 

190, 211, 230,231. 
Lagash, 4. 

Lamas in Thibet, 91. 
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, 124. 
Lao-Tzu, 29. 
Larsa Dyn. , 9. 
Lateran, rebuilding of, 1 10. 
Latin League, 33, 46. 
Layamon's poem, 137, 150. 
League of Cambray, 191, 195, 203. 
Lectisternium, 46. 
Leo III the Isaurian (Emperor), 94. 
the Great (Pope), 79. 



INDEX 



293 



Leo III (Pope), 94, 103. 
IV (Pope), 103. 

IX (Pope), 119. 

X (Medici), 193, 197. 
Leonine city of Rome, 103. 
Leopardi, 195. 

Leopold I (Emperor), 213. 
Lepanto, Battle of, 194, 195, 202. 
Lepidus, 59. 
Lewis the Pious (Emperor), IOI. 

II (Emperor), 102. 

IV (Emperor), 154. 
Liber Pontificalis, 130. 
Lindisfarne, 90, 97. 
Lion gateway, Mycenae, 18. 
Lionel, Duke of Clarence, 167, 185. 
Literature. See under the various coun- 
tries. 
Lollards, 166, 184. 
Lombard Kings, 82, 83, 88, 95. 

League, 128, 130. 
Long Parliament, 225. 
Lothair (Emperor), 101. 

II (Emperor), 128. 
Louis VII of France (the Pious), 133. 

IX of France (Saint), 147, 148, 149. 

XI of France, 183. 

XII, 176, 195. 

XIII, 217, 218. 

XIV, 213, 218. 
Louvre built, 204, 218. 

Loyola, Ignatius, 193, 194, 199, 214. 

Lucca, 158. 

Lucian, 68. 

Lucius Verus, 67. 

Ludi Saeculares, 51, 60, 63. 

Luther, 172, 191, 192, 193. 

Liitzen, Battle of, 221. 

Lycurgus, 22. 

Lydia, 27, 32. 

Lysander of Sparta, 36. 

Lysicrates monument, 43. 

Macbeth, 125. 

Macedonia, 47, 48, 51, 53. 

Machiavelli, 197. 

Macrinus, 70. 

Maderna, 195, 215. 

Magadha (India), 40. 

Magellan, 208. 

Magi, 34. 

Magna Charta, 149. 

Magnus Barefoot, 135. 

Mahabharata epic, 40, 76, 90. 

Majorian, 78. 

Makimono, beginning of, 127. 

Malatesta, Sigismund, 173. 

Malcolm III, 125. 

Malta, Knights of St. John, 195, 247. 



Mamluks, 146, 160, 178, 202. 

Manchus, 210, 229. 

Manetho, 50. 

Manfred, 140, 141, 142, 143. 

Mani, 72. 

Manishtusu, 5. 

Mantinea, Battle of, 41. 

Mantua, 158, 216. 

Manu, 20. 

Marathon, 35. 

Marco Polo, 144, 152. 

Marcus Aurelius, 67. 

Marduk, 2. 

Margaret of Anjou, 185. 

of Denmark, 162, 163. 

of England (York), 183. 

of Flanders, 165. 

(daughter of Maximilian), 171, 183. 

of Parma, 193, 196, 201. 

of Savoy, 200. 

Tudor, 206. 

ofValois, 163. 
Marguerite of Angouleme, 204. 
Maria Theresa, 218. 
Marie de Medici, 203, 217, 218. 
Marius (Caius), 55, 58. 
Mark, St., in Egypt, 64. 
Marozia of Tuscany, 109, 1 10, ill. 
Marston Moor, Battle of, 227. 
Martin I (Pope), 87. 

V (Pope), 176. 
Mary of Burgundy, 171, 182, 183. 

I, Queen of England, 198, 205. 
II of England, 225, 226. 

of Guise, 207. 

Queen of Scots, 203, 205, 207, 224. 
Mathias, 213. 
Matilda of England, 122. 

of Tuscany, 118, 119, 127, 128, 129, 
246. 
Maurice (Emperor), 83. 

of Orange, 201, 219, 220. 
Maurya Dyn., 57. 
Maximian, 71. 

Maximilian I (Emperor), 171, 172, 182, 
183, 191, 195, 198, 200. 

II, 192. 
Maximus, 78. 
Mazarin, 218. 
Mecca, 84, 88. 
Medes, 33. 

Medici, Cosimo (Pater Patriae), 157, 177, 
250. 
family, 175, 177, 196, 216, 250. 
Medina, 88, 96. 
Megasthenes, 46. 
Melanchthon, 191. 
Mena, 3. 
Menander, 57 



294 



INDEX 



Mencius, 47. 

Men-Kau-Ra, 6. 

Mentuhetep, 7. 

Mer-en-Ptah, 14, 18. 

Merovings, 85, 89. 

Mertitefs, 4. 

Mesalim, 5. 

Mesilim, 5. 

Mesopotamian art, 38. 

Messenian wars, 23, 26. 

Michael Angelo, 195, 196, 197. 

Michizane Sugawara, 108. 

Midas, 27. 

Mikado (First), 29. 

Milan, 144, 159, 176, 196, 216. 

Milton, 226. 

Ming Ti (a.d. 58), 66. 

(a.d. 712), 98. 
Miniatures (illuminated MSS.), Art Sup- 
plement, 269. . 
Minnesingers, 129, 140. 
Minoan (Early), 4, 6. 

(Middle), 8, 9, 15. 

(Late), 16. 
Mirabilia Urbis Romae, 130. 
Mitakshara, 126. 

Mithraism, 34, 59, 63, 67, 71, 74. 
Mithridates I of Pontus, 44. 

VI (the Great), 56, 58, 59, 61. 
Moghul rule in India, 209, 228. 
Mohammed, 84, 88.^. 

IV, 217. 
Mohammedans in China, 92. 

in India, 116, 137, 151, 152, 188. 
Mokhlos, 6. 
Moliere, 219. 

Momoyama period, 210, 211. 
Monasteries in Northumberland, 90. 

dissolution of, 205. 
Monastic orders, Appendix XXV, 247. 
Mongols, 146, 151, 152, 153, 189, 202. 
Monks of the Thebaid, 72. 
Montaigne, 204. 
Montaperto, Battle of, 144. 
Moors in Spain, 96, 106, 112, 113, 122, 

123, 134, 146, 147, 161. 
Morosini, Francesco, 215, 217. 
Mosaics, Christian, Appendix XX, 243, 

244. 
Mount Abu temples, 1 25. 
Mummy portraits, 69. 
Mycale, 35. 

Mycenaean civilization, 11, 18. 
Mycenae, destruction of, 35. 

Nabonidus, 33. 
Nabopolassar, 28. 
Nabu-nasir, 25. 
Nakhon Vat, 76. 



Nanda Dyn., 46. 
Nantes, Edict of, 204. 
Nara Busshi, 127. 

Puppets, 139. 
Naram-Sin, 7. 
Nar-Mer, I. 
Narses, 76. 
Naukratis, 26, 28. 
Navarre, rise of, 113. 
Naxos, 24. 

Nebuchadnezzar II, 28, 29, 33. 
Nectanebo I and II, 45. 
Needlework, 136, 150. 
Nehemiah, 39. 
Nekau I and II, 28. 
Neri and Bianchi, 157. 
Nero, 63. 
Nerva, 63. 

Nestorians, 79, 85, 98. 
Netherlands, 182, 200, 218. 
Nibelungenlied, 129. 
Nicaea, Councils of, 74, 94. 
Niccolo Pisano, 143, 144, 145, 158. 
Nicholas II (Pope), 119. 

Ill (Pope), 142. 
Nicomedes I, 49. 
Nimrod, 5. 
Nimroud, 17, 21. 
Nineveh, 7, 28. 
"No" Dance and Drama, 170, 190, 211, 

231. 
Norman Conquest, 124. 
Normandy, Duchy of, 1 13. 
Normans in Italy, 117. 
Norway, 104, 114, 123, 135, 148, 162, 

222. 
Numa Pompilius, 24. 
Nur Jahan, 228. 

Ochus (Artaxerxes), 45. 
Octavian, 59. 
Oddi, 176. 
Odoacer, 78. 
Ojin, Mikado, 73. 
Olaf the Saint, 123. 

Tryggvason, 114, 123. 
Oldcastle, Sir John (Cobham), 184. 
Olybrius, 78. 
Olympia, 26, 32, 74. 
Olympiad (First), 23. 
Olympic Games abolished, 75. 
Olympia Maldachini (Donna), 214. 
Omar Khayyam, 121. 
Omayyad Caliphate, 88, 96, 97. 
O'Neills, the, 208, 228. 
Onias, Temple of, 56. 
Opus Alexandrinum, 130. 

Anglicanum, 115. 
Orchomenos, 18. 



INDEX 



295 



Orsini family, 173. 
Orvieto, 145, 158, 176. 
Otho, 63. 
Otto I, 109, no, in. 

II, no. 

III, no, in, 117. 
of Saxony, 128. 

Oviedo, 97, 106. 

Owen Glendower, 184, 187. 

Oxus, gold treasure from, 43. 

Paestum, Temple of Poseidon, 32. 
Painters, European, Art Supplement, 255. 
Painting. See under the various coun- 
tries. 
Palaekastro, 16. 
Palaeologi, 145, 159, 177. 
Palermo stone, 6. 
Palimpsests, rise of, III. 
Panathenaic games, 30. 
Panini, 47. 
Pan Ku, 2. 

Paolo Anafesta, 88, 95. 
Papal missions to Japan and Congo, 214. 
Parma and Placentia, Duchy of, 194. 
Parsees, 34, 98. 
Parthenon, 79, 146, 217. 
Parthians, 49, 56, 61, 65, 69, 72. 
Parzival, 140. 
Paschal I (Pope), 103. 
Pasebkhanu II, 20, 21. 
Patrick, St., 80. 
Paul the Hermit, 72. 

II (Pope), 173. 

III (Farnese), 193. 
V (Borghese), 214. 

Paul's Cathedral, St., 226. 

Pausanias, 68. 

Peace of Augsburg, 192. 

Pedro the Cruel, 161. 

Peisistratus, 30. 

Pekah (King of Israel), 24. 

Pelagian controversy, 79. 

Pelopidas, 41. 

Peloponnesian War, 36. 

Pen-ta-ur, 14. 

Pepin the Elder, 89. 

II, 89, 95- 

the Short, 96. 
Pepy I (Mery-Ra), 6. 
Pergamos kingdom, 49, 54. 
Periander, 26, 29. 
Pericles, 35, 36. 
Persepolis palace, 34, 38. 
Persia, 29, 33, 38, 44. 
Persian rule in Egypt, 33. 

invasions of Greece, 35. 
Pertinax, 68. 
Peru, conquest of, 208. 



Perugia, 176. 
Peter Damian, 119. 

the Hermit, 119. 

Lombard, 130. 

the Great, 224. 
Peter's, St., Rome, 75, 101, 106, 174, 

194, 214, 215. 
Petrarch, 155, 158. 
Petsofa, 9. 
Phaestos, 8, 16. 
Pharsalia, Battle of, 59. 
Pheidon, 26. 
Philip of Macedon, 41. 

V of Macedon, 48, 53. 

I (France), 122. 
IV of France, 163. 
the Bold, 165. 

the Fair, 171, 172, 182, 198. 

the Good, of Burgundy, 182, 183. 

II of Spain, 192, 198, 199, 200, 201, 
205. 

III of Spain, 199, 222. 

IV of Spain, 218, 222. 
of Swabia, 128. 

VI of Valois, 164, 165. 
Philippa of Hainault, 163. 

of Lancaster, 162, 181. 
Philon, 65. 
Phocas, 87. 
Phoenicia, 11, 17, 18, 21, 24, 27, 32, 39,. 

44. 
Phrygia, 27. 
Piankhy I and II, 24. 
Piccolomini (Pius II), 173. 
Picts and Scots, 76. 
Piers Plowman, 166. 
Pigtails in China, 229. 
Pinezem I, 15. 
Piraeus, destruction of, 58. 
Pisa, 120, 130, 144. 
Plague, 157, 158, 161, 164, 165, 174, 178,. 

216, 225. 
Plataea, 35. 

Platonic Academy, 177. 
Plebeians (Rome), rise of power, 40, 46. 
Pliny, 64. 
Poland, 224. 
Pompey, 59, 60, 61. 
Pontifex Maximus, 59. 
Popes, 75, 79, 87, 94, 103, no, 119, 129, 
141, 155, 172, 193, 214. 

at Avignon, 172. 
Pope Joan, 103. 

Portugal, 135, 162, 181, 199, 223. 
Pottery (Chinese), 58. 

in Japan, 82, 86. 
Poynings Law, 187. 
Praeneste, 27. 
Prayer Book, First, of Edward VI, 205. 



296 



INDEX 



Prince of Wales (First), 149. 
Procopius, 79, 83. 
Psammetichus I, 28. 

n, 33. 

(nephew of Periander), 29. 
Ptah-hotep Proverbs, 6. 
Ptolemies, the, 42, 45, 49, 50, 56, 60. 
Pul, 25. 

Punic Wars, 50, 51, 54. 
Pyramid Age, 5. 

Pyrrhus, King of Epirus, 47, 50, 51. 
Printing press, 174, 184, 192, 197. 
Pyrenees, Peace of, 222. 

Quaestorship (Plebeians), 40. 
Quakerism founded, 227. 

Racine, 219. 
Ra Hesi, 4. 

Ra-Hotep and Nefert, 4. 
Rajputs, 98, 107, 115, 125, 137. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 206. 
Ramayana epic, 40, 76, 90. 
Rambouillet Salon, 219. 
Rameses I, 14. 

II, 14, 18. 

III, 15. 

Ramiro I of Aragon, 122. 

Raphael, 194, 215. 

Rashtrakuta Dyn. (India), 107. 

Ravenna, 79, 83, 88, 95, 241. 

Reformation, 186, 201, 204, 205, 206, 207. 

Regillus, Battle of, 39. 

Renaissance, 173, 174, 175, 177, 194, 199. 

Rene of Anjou, 174. 

Restoration (English), 225. 

Retablos, 135, 180, 199. 

Retreat of ten thousand, 36, 38. 

Reynard the Fox, 148, 164. 

Rhodes, Knights of St. John, 195, 202, 

247. 
Rialto Bridge, Venice, 196. 
Richard I of England (Cceur de Lion), 132, 

I33» 136. 

II of England, 164, 165, 167. 

Ill, 185. 

Duke of York, 185. 
Richelieu, 216, 218. 
Ricimer, 78. 
Rienzi, 155. 
Rig Veda, 20. 
Rivo-Alto, 84, 104. 
Ro (Egypt), 1. 

Robert II, the Pious, 113, 122. 
Roger I of Sicily, 120. 

II of Sicily, 128, 129, 131. 
Roman de la Rose, 148, 164. 
Roman sculptors and Church decorators, 
Appendix XXVI, 248, 249. 



Romance tongue, 88. 

Rome, 24, 27, 32, 33, 39, 46, 51, 54, 58, 
59, 63, 67, 70, 73, 74, 78, 79, 82, 87, 
in, 118, 120, 130, 157, 174, 203, 215. 

A.u.c, 24. 

commencement of Republic, 33. 

commencement of Empire, 59. 

division into East and West Empires, 74. 

sacked, 46, 101, 106, 118, 172, 193. 
Romulus Augustulus, 78. 
Rosetta Stone, 50. 
Rostra, 46. 
Roundheads, 225. 
Round towers in Ireland, 107, 115. 

in Scotland, 115, 125. 
Ruddle drawings (India), 20. 
Rudolf II (son of Maximilian), 192. 
Runic Crosses, 115. 
Russia, 146, 179, 202, 223. 
Ryswick, Peace of, 213, 218. 



Sabines, 24. 

Sachs, Hans, 193. 

Sacred War (first Greek), 29. 

(second Greek), 42. 
Sadyattes, 27. 
Saladin, 132, 133. 
Salamis, Battle of, 35. 
Samhita, 29. 
Samnite Wars, 46, 51. 
Samudragupta, 76. 
Samuel, 18. 
Sanchi Stupa, 52. 
Sancho the Great, 113. 
Sangallo, 194. 

Sankara (Hindu reformer), 98. 
Sankaravarman, 107. 
Sankhya doctrine, 57. 
Sanskrit legal work (oldest), 116. 
Sansovino, 195. 
Santa Hermandad, 180. 
Santorin (Thera), 11. 
Saracens, 88, 96, 105, 112. 

conquered Crete and Sicily, 105. 

in Rome, 101, 103. 
Sardanapalus, 28. 
Sardis, capture of, 32. 
Sargon of Agade, 7. 

II, 25. 
Sarpi, Paolo, 214, 215, 216. 
Sassanids, 72, 76, 80, 88. 
Savonarola, 175. 
Saxon Chronicle, 107. 
Scandinavia, 162, 163, 202. 
Schism between East and West, 105, 121. 
Scipio Africanus, 51. 
Scone Coronation Stone, 150. 
Scorpion (or Zar), 1. 






INDEX 



297 



Scotland, 97, 107, 115, 125, 137, 150, 

166, 186, 206, 227. 
Sculptors, European, Art Supplement, 276. 
Sculpture. See under the various countries. 
Scythian Empire, 29. 
Segesta, 36. 

Seleucid Kingdom, 43, 49, 55, 61. 
Seleucus Nicator, 43, 46. 
Selinus, 27, 36, 38. 
Seljuk era (Calendar), 121. 
Seljukian Turks, 121, 132, 146, 159. 
Semitic period (Babylonia), 7. 
Sennacherib, 24, 25. 
Senusert I, II, and III, 8. 
Septimius Severus, 68, 70. 
Septuagint, completion of, 49. 
Seqenen Ra I, II, and III, 13. 
Servius Tullius, 33. 
Sety I, 14, 18. 

Seven Electors, charter of, 155. 
Seven Electors, the, Appendix XXVII, 

249. 
Seven wise men (Greece), 30. 
Sforza family, 176, 196, 197. 
Shabaka, 24. 
Shabataka, 24. 
Shah Jahan, 228, 229. 
Shakespeare, 206. 
Shalmaneser I, 17. 

II, 21. 

Ill and IV, 25. 
Sheshanq I, 20. 
Shinar, 4. 
Shirpurla, 4. 
Shishak, 20. 
Siam, 168. 

Siberia, conquest of, 179. 
Sicilian Vespers, 143, 144. 
Sicily, 24, 27, 32, 38, 44, 50, 56, 80, 105, 

120, 128, 131, 143, 156. 
Sicily, Temples, 27, 32, 38. 

Capella Palatina Palermo, 131. 

Cefalu Cathedral, 131. 

Monreale, 131. 
Sidon, 18, 27, 44. 
Sidon sarcophagus, 43. 
Siena, 145, 158, 176. 
Sigebert, 85. 
Sikhs, 189. 
Sikyon, 26. 

Silkworms in Japan, 81. 
Silvester II (Pope), III. 
Simon Magus, 65. 

de Montfort, 133. 
Simone Martini, 164. 
Siptah, 15. 

Sistine Chapel, 173, 193. 
Sixtus IV (Rovere), 173. 

V (Peretti), 194. 



Slavonic invasion of Hellas, 82. 

Slavonians in Peloponnesus, 112. 

Sma (Egypt), 1. 

Sneferu, 4. 

Sobiesky, John, 217, 224. 

Social War (Greece), 41. 

(Rome), 58. 
Solemn League and Covenant, 227. 
Solomon, 20, 21. 
Solon, 26, 29. 
Sophia, Sta, 83. 
Spain, 80, 96, 106, 113, 122, 134, 146, 

161, 179, 198, 222. 
Spanish Armada, 198, 205. 
Sparta, 22, 36, 41. 
Spenser, 206. 
Sphinx, 8. 

Spinola, Marquis, 201, 219. 
Spinoza, 220. 
Spurius Cassius, 39. 
Star Chamber, 225. 
Statute of Kilkenny, 167. 
Stilicho, 78. 
Strongbow, 137. 
Stuarts, beginning of, 167. 
Sui-J6n, 2. 

Suleiman the Magnificent, 202. 
Sulla, 58. 

Sultan Mahmud (Idol Breaker), 125. 
Sumerian period (Babylonia), 7. 
Sunga Dyn., 57, 62. 
Susa, foundation of, 2. 
Susa Palace, 34. 
Sutras, 20. 
Svend, 123, 124. 
Sverri Sigurdson, 135. 
Sweden, 104, 221. 
Swiss Cantons, 163. 
Switzerland, Saracens in, 106. 
Sword furniture, 139, 190, 231. 
Symmachia (Hellenic), 35. 
Syracuse, 24, 36, 38. 

Taharqa, 24, 28. 

Taj Mahal, Agra, 229. 

Takenonchi, 73. 

Tamerlane (Timur), 159, 168, 189, 209. 

Tanagra terra-cottas, 42. 

Tancred de Hauteville, 120. 

Taoism, 29. 

Taormina, capture of, 56. 

Tarikh-i-Jalali, 121. 

Tarquinius Priscus, 27. 

Superbus, 33. 
Tarragona recovered from Moors, 123. 
Tartars in China, 57. 
Tea ceremony in Japan, 190, 211, 231. 
Tel-el-Amarna letters, 17. 
Tello, 9. 



298 



INDEX 



Temple of Onias, 56. 

Temples of Jerusalem, 21, 34, 45. 

Teos, 45. 

Terah, 10. 

Test Act, 225. 

Theatre in Japan, 231. 

Thebes (Greece), 41. 

Themistocles, 35. 

Theocritus, 44, 50. 

Theodolinda, 83. 

Theodora (Empress), 120, 121. 

Theodoric, 79, 82. 

Theodosius I, 74, 75, 76. 

Theophano (wife of Otto), 1 10. 

(wife of Romanus), 1 12. 
Theotokos, 79. 
Thera (Santorin), 11. 
Thermopylae, 35. 
Theron, 38. 
Thessalins, 18. 
Thibet, 91. 

Thirty-nine Articles, 205. 
Thirty Years' War, 213, 214, 218, 220, 221, 

222. 
Thomas a. Becket, 136. 

a Kempis, 172. 

the Rhymer, 150. 
Thorgest (Scourge of Ireland), 107. 
Thothmes I, 13, 18. 

II, 13. 

III, i3> IS- 

IV, 14. 

Thousand Buddhas, Hall of, 92. 
Thrasybulus, 38. 
Thucydides, 36. 
Tiberius, 59, 63. 
Tiglath Pileser, 17. 

HI, 25. 
Timgad, 67. 
Timoleon, 44. 
Tirhakah, 24, 28. 
Tiryns, 18, 35. 
Titus, 63. 
Togrul Beg, 121. 
Tokugawa Shoguns, 210, 230. 
Toledo recovered from Moors, 123. 
Toleration Act, 225. 
Torcello, 84, 88, 95. 
Torquemada, 180. 
Torre delle Milizie, 142. 
Torricelli, 216. 
Torriti, 142. 
Totila, 82. 

Towers of Silence, 39. 
Towton, Battle of, 185. 
Trajan, 63, 67. 
Trasimene, Battle of, 51. 
Treasury of Atreus, 18. 
Treaty of Troyes, 183, 184. 



Tribunes, 39. 

Troubadours, 122, 134, 165. 
Troy, n, 18, 237. 
Ts'in Dyn. , 52. 
Tubal Cain, 7. 
Tughlaq Dyn., 167, 188. 
Tuilleries built, 204. 
Tukulti Ninib I, 17. 

II, 21. 
Tullus Hostilius, 27. 
Tunis captured from Spain, 202. 
Turco- Venetian War, 174, 178. 
Turenne, 218, 222. 
Turkish Empire (Seljukian), 121, 132, 

146, 159. 
Turks (Ottoman), 159, 178, 202, 217. 
Two Sicilies, 143, 156, 174, 195, 223. 
Tycho Brahe, 202. 
Tyi (Queen), 14. 
Tyrants, 26. 
Tyre, 11, 18, 24, 44. 
Tyrseni (Tusci), 19. 

Ulster, 228. 

Unas, 6. 

Universities in Europe, 150, 187, 207. 

Ur of the Chaldees, 9. 

Urban VIII (Barberini), 214. 

Ur Bau, 9. 

Urdu (Hindustani), rise of, 152. 

Ur Engur, 9. 

Ur Ningirsu, 9. 

Urnina, 4. 

Usarkon I, 21. 

Utpala Dyn. (India), 107. 

Valentinian III, 78. 

Valerian, 71. 

Vallombrosa, Order of, 120. 

Vandals, 78, 80, 82, 241. 

Van Tromp, 220. 

Vaphio gold cups, 18. 

Vasco da Gama, 181, 188, 200. 

Vases (Greek). See Appendix XII, 238. 

Vatican Library, 173, 177. 

Vedic literature, 20, 25, 29, 47. 

Venetian colonies in Greece, 146, 161, 179, 

198. 
Venetian glass, 175. 
Venetian provinces, 174. 
Venice, 80, 84, 88, 95, 104, 112, 120, 131, 
144, 157, 174, 195, 215. 

Bridge of Sighs, 196. 

Campanile, 104, 131, 158, 195. 

Doges' Palace, 104, 131, 158, 196. 

St. Mark's, 104, 112, 120. 

war with Genoa, 144, 157. 
Venus of Milo, 54. 
Versailles Palace, 219. 



INDEX 



299 



Vespasian, 63. 
Vestals, Flight of, 46. 
Vestal Virgin (last), 75. 
Vienna, Siege of, 217. 
Vikings, 97, 114, 125. 
Vikramaditya, 126. 
Villard of Honnecourt, 140. 
Visconti, 145, 159, 176. 
Visigoths, 78, 80, 96. 
Vitellius, 63. 
Voltaire, 219. 
Vulture stele, 5- 

Wakefield, Battle of, 185. 

Wales, 125, 151, 187. 

Wallace, William, 150, 166. 

Wallenstein, 213, 221. 

Walter von der Vogelweide, 140. 

Wang-chi (five bottle scholar), 86. 

Wani (scholar), 73. 

War of succession, 222. 

Wars of the Roses, 185. 

Warwick (King-maker), 185. 

Weichi game (draughts), 47. 

Wenzel (Wenceslaus), 155, 171. 

Westphalia, Peace of, 213, 214, 221, 222. 

Whitby, assembly at, 90. 

Wilfrid of Whitby, 90. 

William I (England), 124. 

II, Rufus, 124, 125. 

Ill and Mary, 213, 218, 220, 225, 226, 
228. 

I and II of Sicily, 131. 

the Lion, 137. 

Ill the Good, Count of Holland, 163. 

the Silent, 201. 



William II of Orange, 220. 

ofVolpiano, 113. 
Winifrith (Apostle of Germany), 97. 
Witenagemot, 89. 
Witigis, 82. 
Wolsey, 204. 
Won Wang, 19. 
Worcester, Battle of, 228. 
Wren, Christopher, 226. 
Writing, Cretan, 7, 16. 

introduction of, into India, 29. 

paper in China, 67. 

in Japan, 73. 
Wu-Tao-tzu, 92. 
Wu Wang, 19. 
Wycliffe, 166. 

Xavier, St. Francis, 199,209,210,211, 214. 
Xerxes, 35, 38, 39. 
II, 38, 39- 

Yadavas, 152, 167, 168. 
Yan (Chinese Emperor), 12. 
Yii or Ta-yii, 12. 
Yoga system (-Indian), 57. 
Yoritomo Shogun, 138, 139. 
Yoshitsune, 138. 

Zakro, 16. 

Zar (or Scorpion), I. 

Zenobia, 72. 

Zezer, 1, 4. 

Zoe (Empress), 120, 121. 

(Palaeologus), 179. 
Zoroaster, 33. 
Zwingli, 172. 




CHISWICK PRESS: CHARLES WHITTINGHAM AND CO. 
TOOKS COURT, CHANCERY LANE, LONDON. 



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